The Importance of Research in a Social Work Framework

The importance of research in a social work framework Social work, often considered a relatively modern profession, has developed through advances in knowledge, social reforms, democratic ideas and increasing body of research and literature (Doel, 2012). The Social work profession is lead by theories from social sciences, indigenous and humanities knowledge, which comes with a respect for human rights and diversity and is often thought of as a moral endeavour (Chenweth McAuliffe, 2012). It will be shown that research plays an important role in social work and should be used to guide programs and practices, ethical situations and political change. Rubin and Babbie (2011) discussed the importance of research-generated facts to guide practice and social reform efforts, claiming its importance in establishing the contribution research can make to further knowledge and practice. However it is seen that social workers may often underestimate the importance research contributions can make in social work practice (Rubin Babbie, 2011). Rosen, Proctor and Staudt (1999) established that for research to be critically effective, a joint collaboration between researchers and practitioners in establishing the effectiveness of interventions, such a collaboration will support social workers to establish unique research goals that focus on social work priorities. This report will demonstrate that exploration, evaluation and validation of intervention effectiveness is a key contributorShow MoreRelatedWhat is the social ecological model? How can this perspective be used in practice to deepen understanding of the lives of children, young people and families in poverty and promote wellbeing?1381 Words   |  6 Pagesis the social ecological model? 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Proverbs 19:2 (ESV) states, Desire without knowledge is not good, and whoever makes haste with his feet misses his way.For example it is essential for there to be commonalities across the grade levels so that there is a scaffolding of concepts to build from one grade level to the next. †¢ ByRead MoreCriteria List For Curriculum Decision1063 Words   |  5 PagesCriteria List For Curriculum Decision †¢ The aim of Social Studies is the promotion of civic competence the knowledge, intellectual processes, and democratic dispositions required of students to be active and engaged participants in public life. 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Reflecting back to the time of Florence Nightingale who is the pioneer in modern nursing and nursing theory up to the corner of 21st centuryRead MoreThe Importance Of Diversifying Police Agencies And Selection773 Words   |  4 PagesStudy The objective of this thesis is to provide comprehensive information to all stakeholders who have an interest in enhancing minority recruitment and selection. The goal of this thesis is to address law enforcement professionals about the importance of diversifying police agencies; more importantly, is to address the underrepresentation of Asian-American police officers and the challenges of recruiting potential candidates from Asian communities. Through community policing, mediation, trustRead MoreThe Aggressive Behavior Of Male Students851 Words   |  4 Pagesspearheaded academic discourse on bullying. Olweus approached bullying as a theoretical tool to understand the aggressive behaviour of male students. 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Brotherhood Natalie Portman and Brothers Free Essays

Brotherhood is deeper than any words can really explain, for it is a responsibility and a bond between people. Basically, it is a group of people coming together for a common purpose; however, these people share a stronger connection that few can understand. It is almost like a family, for each brother exhibits brother-like qualities, in the respect that they care for you and try to help you out. We will write a custom essay sample on Brotherhood: Natalie Portman and Brothers or any similar topic only for you Order Now From my experience with my brother back home, brothers may not always agree with you and they might argue with you sometimes, but by the end of the day, they are still there for you. It is that bond between you that separates you from a lot of other people, and it is up to a brother to uphold his end of the bond, for he has to make sure it is strong. He needs to be responsible and never let his brothers down. For example, in my past (although this may seem kind of sad on my part), my brother has broken my arm, hit me with a bat, thrown a brick at me, and chipped my tooth, but I remained loyal to him. Up to this day, he and I are closer than ever. And of course I was mad at the time, when that all happened, but I knew deep down inside there’s still a matter of love and respect from one another. That is another thing about brotherhood: it cannot be walked away from because once you are a part of a brotherhood, you are brothers for life. Brothers are there for you when you are at your best and worst, standing by your side at all time. Although things may seem horrible at the time, brothers can really make you look past it and make you look at the bright side of things. Overall, brothers make up a brotherhood, and these brothers instill their values in you so you can be taught right and hopefully, become a better person for it. How to cite Brotherhood: Natalie Portman and Brothers, Essay examples

Counselling Theories and Psychoanalytic Therapy

Question: Discuss about the Counselling Theories and Psychoanalytic Therapy. Answer: In this essay, the key concern is Peter, who is a single, 40 years old male, suffering from inter personal conflicts at both his home and workplace. He has been seeking help from different mental health professionals; however, his conflicts remain same and unresolved. Recently, he has been referred to implement psychoanalytic therapy for resolving his mental health related conflicts (Shedler, 2012). In this essay, the use of psychoanalytic therapy, it pros and cons would be discussed to evaluate how effectively it will work on Peter. Moreover, this essay would also include the discussion about two other modalities, which may help to overwhelm the limitations of psychoanalytic therapy. A number of psychotherapies have been invented, which have been successfully implemented upon the patients experiencing mental health illness. Key aim of the psychotherapeutic approach is to address the mental health issues in different social contexts through the counselling procedures (Marmor, 2012). One of the psychotherapy is psychoanalytic therapy, which has been developed on the basis of theories of Sigmund Freud. This therapy concentrates upon the ways through which the unconscious mind can influence a persons behaviours and thoughts for resolving mental health conflicts of a person, who is seeking therapy. This therapeutic approach attempts to concentrate upon a persons experiences from the early childhood to identify whether there is any event, which is affecting ones life or contributing to the current conflicts (Thom Kchele, 2012). However, the treatment procedure is longer compared to other modalities. It attempts to help people, seeking help for serious psychological disorder for understanding and changing the complex, deep-seated and unconsciously based emotional and relationship problems. Therefore, it is suitable to be involved in Peters health care plan. This psychotherapy helps the patient to enhance their awareness regarding their inner world and influences the past and present relationship. It is different compared to the other psychotherapies, as it aims for deep seated change in emotional and personality development. The role of this psychotherapy is not limited to the mental health problems. Rather, the people who have lost the meaning of their lives and seeking a sense of fulfilment, has been highly influenced to live a better life with the implementation of psychoanalytic psychotherapy (Huber et al., 2012). The psychoanalytic therapy is depends upon the specific suppositions, which cover the urgent parts of awareness and consciousness. It is one of the most well-known psychology based treatment modalities. The theory of Sigmund Freud has been implemented in this modality, who is the founder of school of thought, which is known as psychoanalysis. Safran (2012) depicted that there are three stages of psychoanalytic therapy including initial, middle and late stage. At the initial stage, the key responsibility of the therapist is to establish a positive therapeutic alliance with the patient after reviewing the patients health history. In case of Peter, the therapist would talk with him to understand his key psychological issues and past histories through the establishment of a trustworthy positive relationship. It would help the therapist to recognize their characteristic and behavioural traits and to identify the unnatural behavioural traits, which might contribute to his interpersonal conflicts. The initial resistance to the therapeutic process could be identified by the therapist. Through this stage, the a better understanding of the factors from patients past history, which are promoting his present behavioural traits, would be identified, as these information will help to understand his present transferential response (Glad ding, 2012). During the initial stage, the therapist will be familiarizing with the standards, commitments and will set the goals of the therapy aligning with the patient, for instance Peter, in this case study. This initial stage might be difficult for the therapist, as Peter might not be able to or willing to comply with all the rules and standards of the therapeutic process. As the therapist would give effort to identify key drivers of Peters interpersonal conflicts, engaging the patient in the therapy is very important for getting in-depth information regarding to his medical condition. For this, the therapists verbal and non-verbal skills are very important, which would help the therapist to establish a positive relationship with the patient and motivate him to adhere with the therapeutic requirements. In the middle stage, the psychotherapist would gain awareness about the feelings of the patient Peter about a person in his childhood. For this, analysis of transference and analysis of resist ance can be used, as resistance and transference becomes more crucial for the therapeutic success. At this stage, the therapist would be able to help Peter to understand and comprehend different situations and recognize the unconscious conflicts, thereby enhancing his self-management skills to manage those inner conflicts. Knowing about the stimuli, Peter would be able to make decisions instead of getting influenced by the past histories (Leahy, 2012). At this stage, Peter would adopt skills for managing his internal behavioural conflicts by interacting with the therapist and environmental factors. At the final or late stage, the old, negative behavioural patterns are being replaced by the new, modified thoughts, thereby modifying the behavioural patterns. At this stage, Peter would be able to manage his interpersonal conflicts by his own. The behavioural patterns resulting from the past memories would be repressed with repeated transference adherence, which is the key cause of the longer therapeutic period of this therapy. Once Peter would be able to resolve his interpersonal con flicts in different practical situations by his own, the therapy would be completed (Smit et al., 2012). This therapy has several strengths, which have made this therapy popular among the psychotherapists. However, it also includes some limitations. Thus, evaluation of the process is crucial. The psychoanalytic therapy is alternatively known as the talk therapy, where the patient is provided with the opportunity to talk with the professional without any condition, thereby assisting the patient to reveal the factors contributing to the condition. The therapy is concentrated upon the study of id, ego and superego. These aspects may be related to the childhood experience and this therapeutic approach is able to address the link between childhood experience and the present unconscious behaviour. Thus, unlike other modalities, the psychoanalytic modality is able to link and explore the association between the childhood incident or trauma with the present behavioural conflicts. Thus, via different methods and continuous motivation, therapist is able to modify the negative behavioural aspects. Moreover, this psychological therapeutic approach is not only focusing upon the treatment of mentally ill patient, rather it focuses upon assisting a person seeking a greater sense of fulfilments in life (Corey, 2012). With the help of this approach, a several psychological disorder can be treated. It can be implemented in treating interpersonal issues, depression, personality related issues, difficulties in learning, any kinds of phobia and sleeping disorder. The range of application is vast because it aims to eliminate the root causing the behavioural disturbances of the patient. One limitation of this approach is the time limitation. As the therapy is entirely focused upon the interaction with the patient and includes repeated transference adherence, it takes longer time to set goals and patient recovery. Another key limitation of its application is its huge expense. As the therapeutic processes run for a longer period, cost is also higher. It is a key drawback of applying this therapy for a patients recovery. It has been argued by Gottschalk (2012) that the therapy is only concerning upon the childhood facts, instead of finding clues from the present days. Thus, if the root of psychological issue is embedded in any circumstances occurring in the recent days, it might not be focused, while using this psychoanalytic therapy. A number of scientists have argued the scientific basis of the psychoanalytic therapy. These drawbacks promoted the researchers of different modalities to raise question against the validity of this therapy. Moreover, these limitations of psychoanalytic therapy have promoted the use of alternative modalities, which can overcome these limitations, improving the quality of therapy and health outcomes of the patients. To overcome the limitations of the psychoanalytic therapy, other modalities can be used to resolve psychological cases like Peters case. Alvarez (2012) claimed one of the most popular psychotherapy is cognitive behavioural therapy or CBT therapy in short, which can effectively address a wide variety of behavioural issues and other mental health issues. The core of this therapy is concerned about the feelings, thoughts, emotions, physical sensations and interactions. The CBT therapy is entirely focused on the overall well being of the client. One of the objectives of CBT therapy is implementation of practical practice seeking regular continuous improvement of the mental status. This mostly used in treating patients with anxiety and depression related disorders. The key elements which are targeted by the therapy include modulation of behavioural traits and thought processes. As the therapy involves interactive sessions, it can be merged with the psychoanalytic therapy and in this way t he limitations of psychoanalytic therapy can be overwhelmed (Corey, 2012). In addition, the CBT therapy can be used combining with the medications for treating a particular mental health condition. The cognitive behavioural therapy is effective approach as it is a problem-based, goal-oriented and structured therapeutic approach, which emphasizes the important of a collaborative and positive therapeutic alliance among the client and therapist, while teaching proven skills and strategies. It focuses upon human thought and cognitive abilities, which are responsible for most of psychological problems, thus it has a great appeal in this medical field. However, this modality also has some downsides like others. In this therapy, a limited focus is given on emotions, it is too much focused on the power of positive thinking and neglects the role of unconscious feelings related to emotions (Smit et al., 2012). Moreover, in some cases, ethical issues related to forceful adherence to the therapy has been reported. The scope of this therapeutic model is narrow, broader issues are needed to be addressed. Another modality that can be implemented for eliminating the limitations of psychoanalytical therapy is eclectic therapy. It is a style of therapy that uses different therapies from different schools of thought. It is a flexible approach, which in turn allows the psychotherapists to treat the patient by focusing entirely upon his needs. It does not adhere to any single set of paradigm, following a single school of thought, rather draws upon more than one theory for gaining an insight into the phenomenon. This therapy can treat the entire disorder instead of focusing upon just the symptoms. Thus, it can easily be used for overwhelming the limitation of any psychotherapy including the limitations of psychoanalytic therapy. Where the psychoanalytic therapy only focuses upon the aspects of childhood factors, eclectic therapy focuses upon human behaviour as well as the biological factors to analyze the situation fully. However, this therapy also includes drawbacks; for instance, Leahy (2012) argued that eclectic therapists lack consistency in their thinking. As the eclectic practitioners are not bound to use any theories, methodologies or standards of a particular school of thought, they can incorporate and explore their believe, experience, feelings and perceptions, which might not always worthy for every patient. It might be very much helpful for a patient, but might not get success in another patients case. As in psychotherapy, every patient is different with different thoughts and issues, following minimum standard is necessary, as argued by Safran (2012). In conclusion, it can be interpreted that psychoanalytic therapy is effective in treating people having inter-personal conflict or seeking assistance for achieving a sense of fulfilment in their lives. This therapy can effectively help Peter to understand the key factors stimulating his conflicts. Through a longer period, Peter will be able to understand and adopt strategies for managing these stimuli. However, the essay included the strength and limitations of the psychoanalytic therapy. In addition, two other modalities, CBT and eclectic therapy has also been discussed in this essay, which could effectively be used for overwhelming the limitations of psychoanalytic therapy. References Alvarez, A. (2012). The thinking heart: Three levels of psychoanalytic therapy with disturbed children. London: Routledge. Corey, G. (2012). Case approach to counseling and psychotherapy. Nelson Education. Gladding, S. T. (2012). Counseling: A comprehensive profession. Pearson Higher Ed. Gottschalk, L. A. (2012). Methods of research in psychotherapy. Springer Science Business Media. Huber, D., Zimmermann, J., Henrich, G., Klug, G. (2012). Comparison of cognitive-behaviour therapy with psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapy for depressed patientsa three-year follow-up study. Zeitschrift fr Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie, 58(3), 299-316. Leahy, R. L. (2012). Overcoming resistance in cognitive therapy. Guilford Press. Marmor, J. (Ed.). (2012). The interface between the psychodynamic and behavioral therapies. Springer Science Business Media. Safran, J. D. (2012). Psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic therapies. American Psychological Association. Shedler, J. (2012). The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy. In Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Research (pp. 9-25). Humana Press. Smit, Y., Huibers, M. J., Ioannidis, J. P., van Dyck, R., van Tilburg, W., Arntz, A. (2012). The effectiveness of long-term psychoanalytic psychotherapyA meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical psychology review, 32(2), 81-92. Thom, H., Kchele, H. (2012). Psychoanalytic Practice: 2 Clinical Studies. Springer Science Business Media.

John Paul Sartre Essays - Philosophy Of Life, Modernism,

John Paul Sartre John Paul Sartre is known as one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century. He wrote many philosophical works novels and plays. Much of his work is tied into politics. The essay Existentialism is a Humanism is just one of his many works. Existentialism is a Humanism is a political essay that was written in 1945. Its purpose was to address a small public during World War II in Nazi occupied France. This essay stressed the public not to conform. Sartre introduced a great number of philosophical concepts in Existentialism. Two of these concepts are anguish and forlornness. They are simply defined, as anguish is feeling responsible for yourself as well as others and knowing that your actions affect others and forlornness is realizing that you are alone in your decisions. These two concepts are interwoven throughout the essay and throughout many of Sartre's other works. Sartre's view of anguish and forlornness in Existentialism is a Humanism addresses his view of life and man. Sartre based his views on the basic ideas of existentialism. The idea that existence precedes essence is the central factor in the atheistic view of man. The belief that existence precedes essence states that there is no pre-existing concept of man. (2) In the existentialist view, man is what he makes of himself. They believe that man was indefinable at first; he first appears, then defines himself. (1) There are no set plans as to how a man must live. He must make his own decisions and move towards his future with no help [from the outside world. The main idea of existential is what Sartre simply stated asI am responsible for myself and for everyone else. I am creating a certain image of my own choosing. In choosing myself is choose man. (1) He is saying that man creates his own image of the self and it is different for all men. The belief that existence precedes essence directly ties into the fact that the atheistic existentialist believes that there is no god. They believe that there is no human nature and that humans are inherently free. The concept of anguish is one of Sartre's central ideas in Existentialism as a Humanism. It involves the realization that the choices and decisions a person makes not only affect the self, but they affect everyone. Anguish is getting over the selfishness that has become so prevalent in our society. A person must make decision while looking as society as a whole. Anguish is being concerned with the impact of your decisions on others. Dealing with responsibility is just one form of anguish. A person must be responsible for themselves and others. The essay Existential is a Humanism gives the example of a military officer. All leaders and military officers feel anguish. They have the responsibility to themselves as well as others. A military officer preparing to send his troops into battle must fulfill his responsibilities to himself, his superiors and his troops. He realizes that his interpretations of the orders from above directly impact the fate of his troops.(1) The fact that he continues to make decisions even faced with anguish shows that a military officer feels responsible. All leaders know this anguish, but they continue to make decisions. (1) Anguish that they feel does not dissuade their action, but on the contrary it makes them stronger, it is the very condition of their action. The anguish that a military officer feels is what makes them responsible. Sartre saw anguish as a necessary component of life. It is what makes a person aware of their choices and responsibilities. The concept of forlornness in Sartre's eyes is coming to grips with the fact that we are alone in our decision making. We have no excuses, determinism or omens, that influence our decisions. The atheistic existentialist fells that we are alone in our decision making because there is no god. They feel that the decisions we make are only up to us. Man is free to make his own choices and man is condemned in the fact that he is free. Everything is choice.(1) Knowing that you are alone in your decisions can raise some very interesting questions.

The Art and Life of Van Gogh essays

The Art and Life of Van Gogh essays The Art and Life of Vincent van Gogh Vincent Van Gogh is one of the most distinguished modern artists. His early work depicts humble subjects, peasants mostly, with a gentle hand. Many of his other paintings are mostly room settings, and still lifes of flowers with such intensity that it would seem as if he had captured a piece of the sun and used it in his painting. It is truly ironic that during his lifetime, he received no recognition whatsoever, and only sold one painting. Van Gogh faltered repeatedly in every career he attempted to pursue and felt extremely unloved by others. He did not have any friends. Van Gogh turned to art to express his strong religious feelings and his deep need for love and respect. During the latter years life, he completed over 800 oil paintings. Vincent van Gogh was born on 1853 in Groot-Zundert, which is located in the Netherlands. At the tender age of 16, van Gogh was sent to The Hague to work for an uncle who was an art merchant. During the time he worked for his uncle, van Gogh realized that a business career did not suit him. In 1878, van Gogh applied for admission into a theological school, but was sternly rejected. Van Gogh then decided to become a preacher. He acquired his training from a missionary society in Brussels, Belgium. Late in 1878, van Gogh represented the society as a minister to the extremely poor coal miners in the Borinage, a poor district in Belgium. "He sympathized with their dreadful working conditions and did his best, as their spiritual leader, to ease the burden of their lives." (vangoghgallery.com/misc/bio.htm) Van Gogh was so obsessed with his work that he went without food and other necessities so he could give to the less fortunate. (World Book, p229) The missionary society disapproved van Gogh's actions and chose to relieve him of his duties in the summer of 1879. Van Gogh began to draw while he as in Borinage, and he decided to...

The Session_Start() Function in PHP

The Session_Start() Function in PHP In PHP,  information designated for use across several web pages can be stored in a session. A session is similar to a cookie, but the information contained in the session is not stored on the visitors computer. A key to open the session- but not the information contained within- is stored on a visitors computer. When that visitor next logs in, the key opens the session.  Then when a session is opened on another page, it scans the computer for the key. If there is a match, it accesses that session, if not it starts a new session. With sessions, you can build customized applications and increase the usefulness of the site to its visitors.   Every page that will use the session information on the website must  be identified by the session_start() function. This initiates a session on each PHP page. The session_start function must be the first thing sent to the browser or it wont work properly. It must precede any HTML tags. Usually, the best place to  position it is right after the ?php tag. It must be on every page you intend to use. The variables contained in the session- such as username and favorite color- are set with $_SESSION, a global variable.  In this example, the session_start function is positioned after a non-printing comment but before any HTML. In the example, after viewing page 1.php, the next page, which is page 2.php, contains the session data and so on. The session variables end  when the user closes the browser. Modifying and Deleting a Session To modify a variable in a session, just overwrite it. To remove all the global variables and delete the session, use the session_unset() and session_destroy() functions. Global vs. Local Variable A global variable is visible throughout the program and it can be used by any function in the program. A local variable is declared inside a function and that is the only place it can be used.

The Connections between American Legal Thought and Other Classes Assignment

The Connections between American Legal Thought and Other Classes - Assignment Example The course also studies the historic aspect of these philosophies and theories in relation to American history. This school of thought is different from other schools of thought that have been studied in the past. However, there is a thin line separating American legal thoughts and other school of thoughts taught in American law curriculum such as American legal theory. This essay will therefore investigate the relationship between American legal thought and American legal theory as the main courses taught in American law schools. American legal thought is built on issues that are of interest to the Americans. This includes social issues like legalization of gay marriages and economical issues such as American current position in international business. On the other hand, past schools of thought are established on formalist law sciences, American legal realism and social jurisprudence. The two schools of thoughts are essential to a law student. However, their significance or benefits can only be achieved if there is a close relationship between the two schools of thoughts. Unlike other schools of thought, American legal though deals or focus on legal theories and philosophy from an American perspective. Other schools of thought are established on universal laws or laws that are common worldwide such as criminal justice. American legal theory focuses on majority theories that are used to create American laws. Although this course is important to a law, student it does not provide a practical application o f these theories. American school of thought links the theoretical aspects of law with reality by relating it with modern day occurrences that are of legal concern. American legal thought has significant differences with other courses taught in the law school including the American legal theory. However, both American legal theory and American legal thought revolve on the legal aspects of American history2. American history is the chronological account of occur rences in America since the end of American civil war. In this context American legal thoughts deals with the implication of key events in the American history to the modern day American society. In addition, this school of thought also considers the influence of key historical events in the formation of modern day American law. On the other hand, American legal theory focuses on how American laws have been founded on the historical aspect of the country since the end of American civil war. This includes major issues such as how American history affects modern day court decision-making process. Legal theory also considers how American history serves as a proof to legal theories. The second relationship or connection between American legal thoughts and American legal theory is their incorporation of legal realism. American legal realism is a branch of legal philosophies that that defy the conventional analysis of US jurisprudence. In the orthodox version of the US jurisprudence, law is considered as a self-sufficient structure or rules and principles that courts use to make logical judgments in both political and judicial perspectives. This implies that the two schools of thoughts are against or challenge the ordinary view of American jurisprudence. This indicates that both the American legal theory and American legal thoughts are established on day-to-day views or occurrences on the American judicial system. This includes the social, moral, political

Cross Cultural Relations Assignment (Through watching a specific Essay

Cross Cultural Relations Assignment (Through watching a specific movie- Stepford Wifes) - Essay Example On weekends, he would grab the golf clubs and hit the green after handing the wife some cash to go shopping. This was balanced by the image of the housewife, who would get up earlier than her husband so that a hot, cooked breakfast would be ready for him before he left for work. She would spend the day cleaning the house and preparing for the children to come home and then get busy with dinner. After dinner, she fussed with more housecleaning chores and devoted her every thought to the welfare of her family with never a single thought for herself. These ideas are the focal point of the story The Stepford Wives. In this film, the attempt to create a utopian society fails because of the extreme subjugation of the human spirit in favor of a narrowly focused ideal image of perfectly followed gender roles. This society left no room for difference of opinion of any kind, resorting to robotic technology as a means of artificially altering the personalities of strong women to that of the stereotypical 50s housewife – brainless, thoughtless, and completely subservient. The only way the society could work was if everyone in it accepted the rigidly defined roles they were to play. The moment these roles were questioned, the entire society fell apart. Gender identity becomes a real issue for many individuals coming out of the age of the ‘True Woman’ housewife of the 50s and entering the world of the ‘New Woman’ who is now capable of taking on the business world and winning. This is immediately set forward as being the case with the introduction of Walter and Joanna. While Joanna is seen as the high-powered executive in control of a multi-million dollar project, Walter is little more than a sycophant at the lower rungs of the ladder. His masculinity is threatened in that he is unable to call the shots at home or at work and he feels he is of

White Noise Essay Example for Free

White Noise Essay There are certain land marks that if a person where to go to the same image is with them forever. Think about the empire state building, people tend to think about the helicopter view drifting around the building. They could have worked there or just visited it in real life yet the image is kept with them. In the novel White Noise by Don DeLillo it mentions the most photographed barn in the world which murray states that â€Å"it is impossible to see the barn for what it really is. It is impossible to escape it aura. Which can mean that because it has been so photographed it becomes impossible to have a memory about it that someone one hundred percent created, yet only mentally captured the printed image into one’s mind. Also, when such a large amount of people have seen an object, it is impossible to make a unique opinion on it. It would fall into a generic overview of the barn. Then there is the aura of the tourist, which in Murrays opinion â€Å"are taking pictures of taking pictures†(pg12). There is a good chance that they have seen the barn before yet are still taking images of it so they can have their own â€Å"claim† of it which puts them away of the reality of the barn and is in a way a form of voyeurism. Imagine the effile tower or the empire state building, two images that define the city’s which they call home. It is hard to think about Paris or New York City without them located in the city. Most people have never even seen these marvels of modern architecture but the image is seared like a hot iron into ones brain. There is a condition called Paris syndrome (^1) where people who visit the city become psychotic because the city did not meet the image of advertising or perceived ideals. When people come to see the barn Muarry states, they don’t see it. They see the pictures and the t. v adds that have been implanted in their minds. This makes sense from all the advertising in the novel and in real life. When something has the label of being captured by film more than anything in the united states it is impossible for at least one of those images to not be stuck bouncing around in one’s head as they think about the barn. Its â€Å"aura† is that it is captured in a certain way and impossible to overthrow. When people go on vacation they always take pictures. It is claimed that I helps keep the memories of the trip; to capture the moment. Yet, how often do people remember actives on a trip that were not photographed. Murray tries to state that photographs standardize the memory and make it so it is uniform. Which is un-relevant why someone wants to do that? It is unimportant to standardize memories when the unique sensations that people experience are what make the memory great. The photos of the barn only apply to one of the five senses. Being there add’s all of them the smell of the air around it, the sound of the creaking of the wood, the feel of the barn door being opened and if that person is it to it they can even lick the barn to find out the taste. That is what makes the moment of a memory. When something is captures so many times it is impossible to form a unique idea about it or to have a memory. It is thought of the same way for every person. Muary was trying to state that exact idea. What is special about the memory is what makes it a memory.

George W. Russell (AE Æ),- His Life, Paintings and Impact on Irish Cult

George W. Russell (AE Æ),- His Life, Paintings and Impact on Irish Culture Introduction George William Russell (Æ), poet, painter, statesman and friend of many. George Russell definitely was all of those things. But why is it that I, a visiting student from the far North, takes such an interest in a man who despite his greatness not many people outside Ireland has heard of. When asked about visual arts in Ireland, names like Jack Yeats, Paul Henry and James Barry might be heard but only people with a deep interest in Irish culture will also mention George W. Russell, or Æ as he is more commonly known. But Æ Russell was, and still is, Irish culture, which is what I will try to prove to you with this paper. My first encounter with Æ Russell was when I heard about one of the greatest love stories ever heard, the Irish legend about Deirdre and Naisi. Æ Russell took this tale and made it into a play, the one and only play he would ever write, published in 1901 under the name â€Å"Deirdre†. The mythological tales has always been a keen interest to me and to learn that Æ Russell wrote plays, poems and painted pictures with mythological content, sure was a true excitement for me. But to get a better understanding of what kind of man Æ Russell was and what he had done for Irish culture I embarked on a cultural trip around Dublin. I started off by going to the Oriel Gallery a Clare Street to see some of his paintings. My next step was a visit to 3 Upper Ely Place (behind Saint Stephen’s Green), a place where Æ Russell lived between 1891 and 1898 (1897) and one of two places in Dublin where you still can see an original mural signed Æ Russell. Sadly, a lot of his other murals on Dublin walls has been torn down, taking an important part of cultural heritage away with it. Lastly I visited the Mount Jerome Cemetery (Harold’s Cross) where Æ Russell is buried. All this, together with my own strong interest in mythology, made this cultural â€Å"journey† in Æ Russell footsteps a pure pleasure. George â€Å"Ɔ Russell, the man George William Russell, son and one of three children of Tomas Elias Russell & Marianne Russell (formerly Armstrong), was born in William Street, Lurgan, County Armagh on the 10:th of April 1867. At the age of 11, the family moved to Emorville Avenue in Dublin where in 1880 George Russell enrolled in the Art School on Kildare Street. At the age of 16, George Ru... ... the â€Å"human†. As of today, that favorite of mine goes for about IR £ 8.500 but that in my view is a small price for such a work of excellence. It is also a part of Irish culture as it was 100 years ago; and still is†¦.. 1. â€Å"Neptunes Daughters† (Original size: 16† x 21â€Å") 2. â€Å"A Vision in the Glade† (15 ½Ã¢â‚¬  x 21†) 3. â€Å"Trailing Clouds of Glory† (18 ½Ã¢â‚¬  x 24†) 4. â€Å"Neptunes Angels† (21† x 32†) 5. â€Å"The Young W.B. Inscribed and Dated 1897† (17† x 14†) References: Main Publications: Davis, R.B., 1977, George William Russell (â€Å"AE†). George Prior Publishers, London, England. Denson, A., 1961, George W. Russell (Æ) – A Bibliography. Northwestern University Press, New Jersey, U.S.A. Kain, R.M. & O’Brien, J.H., 1976, George Russell (Æ). Bucknell University Press, Lewisburg, U.S.A. Other publications: Nulty, O., 1989, George Russell – Æ â€ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦at The Oriel’s, 21st Anniversary. The Oriel Gallery, Dublin, Ireland. Smythe, C., 1988, The Descent of the Gods – The mystical writings of G. W. Russell – Æ. By: Michael Arrhenius University: Jà ¶nkà ¶ping International Business School, Sweden. Class: Irish Culture Instructor: Mr. Smyth Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), Aungier Street, March 2000.

Quiz 1

Question 1 5 out of 5 points | | | Entrepreneurs are commonly characterized as:Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   risk takers and decision makers. | Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   risk takers and decision makers. | | | | | * Question 2 5 out of 5 points | | | The hard sell or aggressive persuasion designed to separate consumers from their cash emerged during the _____Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   production era| Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   production era| | | | | * Question 3 5 out of 5 points | | To be successful entrepreneurs must be comfortable risking their money and _____ to start and manage a business. Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   time| Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   time| | | | | * Question 4 5 out of 5 points | | | In 1995, a renegotiation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) took bold steps to lower tariffs and to reduce trade restrictions. A tariff is a:Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   tax on imports. | Correct Answer:| à ‚  Ã‚   tax on imports. | | | | | *Question 5 5 out of 5 points | | The four major categories of factors of production are:Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   natural resources, capital, human resources, and entrepreneurship. | Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   natural resources, capital, human resources, and entrepreneurship. | | | | | * Question 6 5 out of 5 points | | | In the relationship era, firms began to recognize that cultivating current customers is more profitable than constantly _____Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   seeking new customers. | Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   seeking new customers. | | | | * Question 7 5 out of 5 points | | | During the marketing era consumers found:Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   more choices for goods and services. | Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   more choices for goods and services. | | | | | *Question 8 5 out of 5 points | | | As a factor of production, capital would include:Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   machine s, tools, buildings, and technology. | Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   machines, tools, buildings, and technology. | | | | | * Question 9 5 out of 5 points | | Human resources include theAnswer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   physical, intellectual, and creative contributions of individuals working within an economy. | Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   physical, intellectual, and creative contributions of individuals working within an economy. | | | | | * Question 10 5 out of 5 points | | | _____ refers to the quality and quantity of products and goods available to a population at a given time. Answer | | | | | Selected Answer:|   Ã‚   Standard of living| Correct Answer:|   Ã‚   Standard of living| | | | | quiz 1

Paul’s Teachings Essay

1. Essay on the Epistle to the Galatians The New Testament Book Epistle to the Galatians is ascribed by the Catholic Church to St. Paul but now believed to be written by early Christian missionary Paul of Tarsus to the early Christian communities in Galatia, then a Roman province. It was an intensely personal letter wherein Paul primarily tackled the circumcision issue during those early days of Christianity. The issue of circumcising Gentile converts, considered to be culturally offensive to Romans, was then being hotly debated. In the Epistle, Paul cautions against the introduction of Jewish practices, such as circumcision, into the community of Christians. The circumcision debate written in Galatians was important for St. Paul because he wanted to point out to the Gentiles that the prescriptions that regulated the day-to-day lives of the Jews under the Law of Moses are meant to lead men to salvation through Christ. Some Galatian converts or Judaizers at that time insisted that observance of the Law, including circumcision, abstinence and certain ritual purifications, was prerequisite to being good or perfect Christians. During the Old Testament, circumcision served as a man’s public pledge to the complete observance of Mosaic Law. In Paul’s argument against circumcision, he mentions Old Testament figures such as Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael, Sarah and Hagar in order to explain and illustrate â€Å"what it means to follow God’s advice† ( 4:21, Galatians). Using the story of the birth of Isaac and Ishmael, Paul stresses that Christians should genuinely believe and follow all of God’s advise, not only religious traditions but more so, following the examples of Christ. In addressing the circumcision issue in the Epistle, Paul thereby explains that by itself, the Mosaic Law had no power to save because salvation needs individual faith and the grace of Jesus. 2. Essay on the Books of Timothy I, Timothy II and Titus The New Testament Books First Epistle to Timothy, Second Epistle to Timothy and Epistle to Titus are three Pastoral Epistles attributed to St. Paul but now believed to be from Paul of Tarsus. They are collectively termed as the Pastoral Epistles chiefly because the letters are addressed to pastors or heads of the early Church regarding proper handling of the ministry. Together, the Epistles instruct the Bishop Timothy and the Christian worker Titus on the general principles regarding community order and faith. Specifically, the greater part of the Timothy I is devoted to instructions on the proper ordering of Christian community life for it to function smoothly. It also admonishes Timothy on the duties of the bishops and deacons in terms of preaching, praying in public and care for the Church members. Timothy II, on the other stresses the faithful dispensing of the responsibilities by church leaders and provides encouragement to the Bishop. The Pastoral Epistles talk of the proper conduct of both men and women; proper behavior when inside the Church; respect for old and young people; treatment of elderly and rules for the enrollment of widows and other prescriptions for good and Christian behavior. They also talk of how to remain steadfast in faith by rejecting false teachings and safeguarding the truths in the Church. Such is a suggestion of the pressures against and the corresponding struggles to strengthen the faith within the community. The administrative activities, especially as found in Timothy I tell us that the early Church then was already, or at least beginning to be, structured and orderly and made up of united members. This is seen, for one, in the discussion on the selection of church leaders. These three Epistles definitely communicate to us the difficulties of the early Church. The part in Timothy II wherein Paul exhorted the Bishop to be patient in the face of persecution is best illustrates the serious problems they encountered. The recommendations in the Timothy I and Titus regarding the kind of character needed for the leaders of the Church suggest the earnest efforts to build and fortify what we know now to be a heavily challenged Church back then. In gist, Timothy I and II and Titus portray the picture of the Christian community during the incipient period of the Church. The Books show that times were hard but that the early Christians, herein guided by Paul, mustered their faith and effort for the ministry.

Dead Poets Society - Neils Death Scene essays

Dead Poets Society - Neils Death Scene essays The scene that is being analysed in Dead Poets Society is one of the last in the film where Neil decides to kill himself. The characters focused on in this scene are Mr and Mrs Perry and Neil. The scene starts off with a photo portrait of the Perrys which symbolises that they always looked happy and that a conflict of any sort could not occur. Alongside the photo on the small desk are cigarettes and alcohol in which shows Mrs. Perrys tension, stress and anxiety. The camera then heads up from the table to the window where we can see Mr. Perry and Neil walking to the front door. At this point there is no music. The next shot shows a mid-shot of Mr. Perry and Neil walking into the room and Neil sitting down on the chair with a punch of thorns he wore in his play in his hands. There is silence except for the slow moving footsteps. A wide angle shot is then used to show all three of the Perrys in the room. Dialogue finally commences when Mr. Perry tells Neil of his disappointment and decides to enrol him in harbour to become a doctor. During this dialogue, a sequence of close-ups are used on each of the Perrys faces to portray Mr. Perrys anger and frustration, Mrs. Perrys confusion and Neils shock of his fathers decision. The dispute ends with all three standing up and the Mr. Perry walking out of the room and the camera panning back down to a close-up of Neil with his mum in the background. In complete shock, he says I was good...I was really good. Then smiles as his mum walks out the room. The scene is switched to Neils parents room with his father taking off his jacket and his slippers and hopping into to bed. The slippers symbolise neatness and order in the house. The camera zooms in on the slippers while Mr. Perry turns off the light. With this we can hear Mrs. Perry crying in the comfort of her husband. ...

Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals - Artiodactyla

Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals - Artiodactyla Even-toed hoofed mammals (Artiodactyla), also known as cloven-hoofed mammals or artiodactyls, are a group  mammals whose feet are structured such that their weight is carried by their third and fourth toes. This distinguishes them from the odd-toed hoofed mammals, whose weight is borne primarily by their third toe alone.  The artiodactyls include animals such as cattle, goats, deer, sheep, antelope, camels, llamas, pigs, hippopotamuses, and many others. There are about 225 species of even-toed hoofed mammals alive today. The Size of Artiodactyls Artiodactyls range in size from the mouse deer (or chevrotains) of Southeast Asia that are barely bigger than a rabbit, to the giant hippopotamus, which weighs some three tons. Giraffes, which are not so heavy as the giant hippopotamus, are indeed large in another way- what they lack in bulk they make up for in height, with some species reaching as much as 18 feet tall. Social Structure Varies Social structure varies among artiodactyls. Some species, such as water deer of Southeast Asia, lead relatively solitary lives and only seek company during mating season. Other species, such as wildebeest, cape buffalo and American bison, form large herds. Widespread Group of Mammals Artiodactyls are a widespread group of mammals. They have colonized every continent except Antarctica (although it should be noted humans introduced artiodactyls to Australia and New Zealand). Artiodactyls live in a variety of habitats including forests, deserts, grasslands, savannas, tundra, and mountains. How  Artiodactyls Adapt The artiodactyls that inhabit open grasslands and savannas have evolved several key adaptations for life in those environments. Such adaptations include long legs (which enable swift running), keen eyesight, a good sense of smell and acute hearing. Together, these adaptations enable them to detect and evade predators with great success. Growing Large Horns or Antlers Many even-toed hoofed mammals grow large horns or antlers. Their horns or antlers are used most often when members of the same species come into conflict. Often, males use their horns when fighting each other to establish dominance during the mating season. Plant-Based Diet Most members of this order are herbivorous (that is, they consume a plant-based diet). Some artiodactyls have three- or four-chambered stomach which enables them to digest cellulose from the plant matter they eat with great efficiency. Pigs and peccaries have an omnivorous diet and this is reflected in the physiology of their stomach which has only one chamber. Classification Even-toed hoofed mammals are classified within the following taxonomic hierarchy: Animals Chordates Vertebrates Tetrapods Amniotes Mammals Even-toed hoofed mammals Even-toed hoofed mammals are divided into the following taxonomic groups: Camels and llamas (Camelidae)Pigs and hogs (Suidae)Peccaries (Tayassuidae)Hippopotamuses (Hippopotamidae)Chevrotains (Tragulidae)Pronghorn (Antilocapridae)Giraffe and okapi (Giraffidae)Deer (Cervidae)Musk deer (Moschidae)Cattle, goats, sheep, and antelope (Bovidae) Evolution The first even-toed hoofed mammals appeared about 54 million years ago, during the early Eocene. They are thought to have evolved from the condylarths, a group of extinct placental mammals that lived during the Cretaceous and Paleocene. The oldest known artiodactyl is Diacodexis, a creature that was about the size of a modern-day mouse deer. The three main groups of even-toed hoofed mammals arose by about 46 million years ago. At that time, even-toed hoofed mammals were by far outnumbered by their cousins the odd-toed hoofed mammals. Even-toed hoofed mammals survived on the fringes, in habitats that offered only hard-to-digest plant foods. That was when even-toed hoofed mammals became well-adapted herbivores and this dietary shift paved the way for their later diversification. About 15 million years ago, during the Miocene, the climate changed and grasslands became the dominant habitat in many regions. Even-toed hoofed mammals, with their complex stomachs, were poised to take advantage of this shift in food availability and soon surpassed the odd-toed hoofed mammals in number and diversity.

Investment Portfolio paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Investment Portfolio paper - Essay Example According to her, it has a broad global track for the equity part of her portfolio, hence secure for her investment. This investment plan is also well registered and recognized worldwide. Since she intends to invest for over thirty years, this investment will give her good returns since it has a high demand. This is a follow up of her willingness to maintain discipline on investment as she has done before. Besides, she has no dependants and has sustainable income which will enable her to invest without interruption. Her return objectives are determined by the capital she holds in her retirement benefits account which she never monitors, meaning she is determined to let it grow without interference. ETF is an organization that has grown for over years with expensive assets. This gives it chance to reduce the level of risks it faces. The risks are therefore tolerable by this woman. This means that she has a high probability of getting returns, but low probability of getting losses. There is also a good chance of diversifying the investments in the organization. This is because it has variety of securities, enabling any shareholder to diversify investments at will. She can invest in securities like bonds, debentures and many others among the investment

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 24

Personal Statement Example I also scored grade B (b) in Mathematics and English as a second language and received an International General Certificate of Education of Secondary Education from the University of Cambridge International Examinations body. The British Council equally certified and qualified my International English Language Test results. As such, I have attained the required GPA and Test requirements from accredited bodies and hence my academic qualification to join your institution to pursue a B.A degree in Computer Science. Though I am an international student from Cyprus, I have efficient communication skills to study in a U.K university. I believe that joining your institution will offer me a great opportunity to advance my education in Computer Sciences and help me to achieve my career goals. I served in the military for two years and achieved advanced skills in military technology. Indeed, I designed a relational database for my camp that stores information about soldiers’ obligations and duties. The military training equally helped me to adopt a sense of discipline, objectivity, and innovativeness, which are significant in pursuing a B.A Degree in Computer Sciences. I also possess relevant experience from the part time job that I undertook at a local Computer shop where I solved technical problems, software and hard ware. The achievements, experience, and skills will enhance my capacity to advance my studies in computer science. I have a creative mind and adopt technological advancements in my endeavors. Furthermore, I have personal interests in sports like swimming, Ancient Greek, and Roman fights where I have trained for two years. I am sure that my participation in these sports and my commitment to community service will improve my physical and social life as well as promote the image of your respected institution. My debating and leadership skills will enable me to take leadership

U.S. Car Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

U.S. Car Companies - Essay Example The huge demand for the products of this industry in the domestic market of U.S., allowed the companies in the industry to enjoy economies of mass production (scale economies). This helped to speed up the rate of growth of the industry. At the beginning in 1890s, the U.S. auto industry began with approximately 100 automobile companies. These companies used to employ several modern technologies in their product and production processes. Steam engines, internal combustion engines and battery powered engines were the various types of engines found in the cars manufactured by these companies. Since that time, electric cars were available in the nation. The use of steam cars was also famous in the country; however, at times of cold weather, these cars could not be used. Lack of proper road infrastructure hindered this industry from expanding in the initial years. The Federal Aid Road in 1916 and the Federal Aid Highway Act in 1921, helped in allocation of substantial funds in U.S., to build proper roads. In 1896, Henry Ford introduced a new car company named The Ford Motor Company in U.S. Model T was the first model produced and sold by the company and its worth at that time was about $850. The model of the company became very famous in U.S. market and experienced high demand. High demand helped the company to enjoy economies of scale in production. This in turn reduced the cost of production and hence, profit and soon made the organization the largest auto company in the world. The next famous prominent auto company of U.S. that had become famous in the world market was General Motors Corporation (Hirsch 245). The company was founded by William Durant in 1908. The company acquired many small car producing firms, like, Cadillac and soon became a strong competitor of Ford Motor Company in the industry. Chrysler Group LLC was another famous car manufacturing company in

The Threat Of Nuclear Weapons Politics Essay

The Threat Of Nuclear Weapons Politics Essay Nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction which are capable of wiping out an unimaginably large number of people. Today, five member nations, the United States of America, Russia, United Kingdom, France and the Peoples Republic of China are internationally recognized as nuclear weapons nations by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and are thus permitted to possess nuclear weapons. Two non-signatory members, India and Pakistan also possess these weapons and have conducted nuclear weapon tests. In addition to these seven members, Israel is strongly suspected of possessing nuclear weapons although it has neither confirmed it nor denied it. There is also speculation the Iran might be running a covert nuclear weapons program. Finally, North Korea has publicly declared itself to be in possession of nuclear weapons but this fact has never been confirmed as it has not conducted any substantial nuclear tests. There is an urgent need to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons across the world as they pose a great threat to international security and their usage could lead to catastrophe. Today, this issue is especially relevant to North Korea and the Middle East where the lack of agreements and the prevalence of ambiguities regarding nuclear programs is becoming an issue of global concern. Countries associated with nuclear weapons3 Definition of Key Terms Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) The NPT is a treaty that came into force in 1970, in order to limit nuclear proliferation. It prohibits non nuclear weapon states from developing, possessing or acquiring nuclear weapons or explosives. The three pillars of the treaty are non proliferation, disarmament and the peaceful use of nuclear technology. Currently, it has not been signed by India, Pakistan and Israel. Nuclear weapons Nuclear weapons are extremely destructive and explosive weapons that derives its force through either fission reactions or both fission and fusion. Nuclear Proliferation Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of nuclear weapons, fissile material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information, to nations which are not recognized as Nuclear Weapon States by the NPT. 1 Nuclear weapons free zone A Nuclear weapons free zone is a geographical area recognized by the United Nations that has banned the use and development of nuclear weapon technology and has put measures into place to check its implementation. Nuclear Disarmament Nuclear disarmament is a proposal to dismantle nuclear weapons in order to reduce the possibility of the occurrence of a nuclear war. Background Information The first nuclear weapon was invented by USA, Britain and Canada during the Second World War. USA remains the only country to have ever used it. Soon after, during the Cold War, the world saw the beginning of the nuclear arms race. Following the Second World War, Korea was divided into two geographical regions: the northern controlled by the Soviets and the southern controlled by USA. Also, Israel is believed to have begun investigating the nuclear field soon after it was founded in 1948. In the 1950s the nuclear program in Iran was established for peaceful purposes under the supervision of the United States. The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) was signed in 1963 which banned the test of nuclear weapons underwater, in the atmosphere or in outer space. This treaty was not signed by China and France who are both nuclear weapons states today. The conflict between the communist North Korea and the capitalist South Korea has been going on since 1950 and there have been repeated failures to consolidate the two as one unified nation. Even today, the two countries have not officially made peace. Hence, ever since the 1970s, North Korea began its pursuit of acquiring nuclear weapons. In 1967, a CIA report claimed that Israel had the materials required to construct a bomb. In 1979, a US satellite reported a flash in the Indian Ocean that was similar to a nuclear denotation and could have possibly been a nuclear test conducted by Israel. It is speculated to be one of the apparently few joint nuclear tests conducted by South Africa and Israel. Minimal progress was made in nuclear disarmament until 1991 and the Comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty (CTBT) was adopted in 1996 which banned all nuclear explosions in all environment for military or civilian testing. It was signed by 182 countries and ratified by 153 and was aimed at stopping the nuclear arms race. Iran ratified the NPT in 1970s which subjected it to IAEA inspections. Today, the main reason for suspicion of Irans nuclear program is its failure to declare sensitive enrichment and reprocessing activities to the IAEA. In 1992, North Korea entered a safe guards agreement under Article 3 of the NPT which allowed IAEA inspectors to inspect North Koreas nuclear materials. In 1993, North Korea threatened to withdraw from the NPT which it had acceded to earlier. However, this did not ultimately happen as USA and North Korea came to an agreement by which North Korea would suspend all nuclear reactors in exchange for in exchange for alternative energy resources. North Korea withdrew from the IAEA in 1994 and launched a missile over the Sea of Japan in 1998 which caused USA to review its policies towards the country. Relations between the two countries remained turbulent. In 2002, the North Korean Deputy Secretary apparently acknowledged the existence of a covert nuclear-weapons development program. North Korea withdrew from the NPT in 2003 and in response; the US launched six way talks about the issue with North Korea, South Korea, China, Japan and Russia. North Korea, once again, agreed to abandon all nuclear weapon activities. However, like previous agreements, North Korea did not commit to it. It declared that it had nuclear weapons and withdrew from the six party talks in 2005. In October, 2006 North Korea announced plans for its first nuclear test. North Korea did conduct an explosive underground test but there are doubts as to whether it really was a nuclear test since the magnitude of the blast was less than expected. As far as Iran is concerned, in March 2010, Iran declared itself as a nuclear state and president Ahmadinejad announced I want to announce with a loud voice here that the first consignment of 20 percent enriched uranium was produced and was put at the disposal of the scientists. However, Iran reiterated that it will use this only for peaceful purposes. We have the capability to enrich uranium more than 20 percent or 80 percent but we dont enrich (to this level) because we dont need it. Evidently, there has been a great turn of events regarding the development and legitimacy of nuclear weapons in North Korea, Iran and Israel. A clear agreement in the case of all three countries has yet to be formed. General Overview Nuclear Deterrence The argument of those who possess nuclear weapons is that it enables them to ward off or deter nuclear or conventional attack through threat of disastrous retaliation. This could be incentive to possess nuclear weapons. DPRK has been accused of using nuclear weapons as a political tool to normalize relations with USA, Japan, and South Korea and to end the embargo against North Korea. North Korea will thus be unwilling to give up nuclear weapons without substantial concessions from USA and South Korea, among others. On the other hand, Iran has entirely denied seeking nuclear weapons for retaliation or nuclear deterrence. Transfer One of the greatest concerns with nuclear weapons is that it could end up in the wrong hands. Not only could countries possessing them sell them to others, thus encouraging nuclear proliferation, but nuclear weapons could also be sold to or stolen by non-state actors. If such a situation were to arise, it would have severe implications on the national security of several countries. For instance, DPRK has refrained from selling its nuclear weapons and materials. However, in the case of harsh sanctions being imposed on the country, it could retaliate and sell its nuclear weapons. Out of this fear, China has prevented the Security Council from authorizing the use of force or imposing truly harsh sanctions on the country. Similarly, in 1975, there were rumors that Israel offered to sell its nuclear weapons to South Africa. Israel has vehemently denied the claim. Israel-Iran Relations The turbulent relationship between Israel and Iran dates back to the Islamic Revolution in the 1970s. Both countries are suspected of having a nuclear weapons program and blame each other for threatening the security of the Middle East by doing so. Irans extreme hostility towards USA and Israel is probably the reason that has caused many to consider Iran to be the greatest threat in the Middle East. Iran itself is not a democracy and does not recognize the right to freedom of speech and expression. In addition, it refuses to acknowledge Israel as a country and refers to Israel as an occupied territory. However, many are angered at the fact that although there is no proof that Iran plans on developing nuclear weapons it is being faced with threats of dire consequences by the USA and Europe where as there is comparatively less pressure on Israel which is practicing opacity as far as its nuclear plan is concerned. On the other hand, seeing as Israel is a democracy, people believe that it can be trusted with its power. Israel also has a reputation of being relatively more reliable and predictable. It is considered less likely to misuse its nuclear weapons through and arbitrary attack. However, Israels intentional ambiguity regarding nuclear development in the country could be considered as a catalyst for the prospect of a nuclear arms race in the region. There are rumours that Israel may have up to 400 nuclear warheads. Egypt and 17 other Middle Eastern countries want Israels nuclear capabilities to be discussed with the IAEA since they have all signed the NPT and believe that Israels accession to the NPT is essential to establish regional peace. Israels current status is considered by some to be a provocation of nuclear proliferation. Israel refuses to sign the NPT without a comprehensive regional peace agreement as until then it requires its ambiguity about its nuclear weapons capability as a deterrent. It is important to note that although the world is split regarding who is to be blamed, both Israel and Iran are in a situation that can possibly lead to a destabilizing arms race in the Middle East and are key players in the possibility of establishing a nuclear free zone in the Middle East. Thus any agreement that does not involve the two countries will result in stalemate. Major Countries and Organizations Involved Israel Israel is the only country in the Middle East that is not a part of the NPT and is suspected by the IAEA to have nuclear weapons. Israel refuses to admit or deny possessing nuclear arsenal, or developing nuclear weapons and is using this ambiguity about its nuclear weapons capability as a deterrent. It is a good ally of USA and a hostile enemy of Iran. Iran Iran is a part of the NPT and strongly asserts that its nuclear technology, including enrichment is solely for civilian purposes but the IAEA has been unable to verify it. It is strongly suspected that the program is concealing the development of nuclear weapons. Iran claims that Israel is the only obstacle to establishing a nuclear weapons free zone and has stated its intentions to wipe Israel of the map. Iran has been subjected to four rounds of sanctions by the Security Council of the United Nation in order to urge it to halt its nuclear program. USA USA, today, has the largest quantity of nuclear weapons in the world but is trying to gradually cut them down under the Obama administration. It strongly condemns both North Korea and Iran for their nuclear program and is unwilling to accept either of the two as nuclear powers. China China has been reluctant to back the sanctions against Iran as it supports the Irans nuclear program for civilian use. It is believed to have helped Iran with its missile development programs. It is North Koreas most important ally, biggest trading partner and main source of food, arms and fuel. China has not expressed outright defiance against USA in order to protect its relations with the country and has supported some UN sanctions against Iran. Russia Russia believes that every nation has the right to self defense and therefore sees Irans nuclear program as legitimate. It has strong ties with Iran and has opposed unilateral sanction imposed on it by USA. However, Russia has urged Iran to change its stance. Russia has also been accused of assisting North Korea and Iran with their nuclear program. IAEA The IAEA is an international organization that promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy. The IAEA believes that every nation has the right to an authorized and monitored nuclear program for peaceful purposes; however, nations should not attempt to pursue nuclear weapons in any form. Timeline of Events Date Description of event 1945 USA conducts its first nuclear test 1946 Russia conducts its first nuclear test 1952 UK conducts its first nuclear test 1964 China conducts its first nuclear test 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty 1968 NPT signed 1974 Indias first nuclear test 1985 North Korea accedes to the NPT 1990 Frances first nuclear test December 31, 1991 North and South Korea sign the South-North Joint Declaration on the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. March 6, 1992 US imposes sanctions upon North Korea for missile proliferation activities September, 1992 IAEA inspectors discover discrepancies in North Koreas initial report on its nuclear program and ask for clarification on several issues, including the amount of reprocessed plutonium in North Korea. February 9, 1993 North Korea denies IAEA inspections of two sites believed to store nuclear waste. 1993 North Korea threatens to withdraw from the NPT 1994 Agreed Framework June 13, 1994 North Korea withdraws from NPT 1996 Comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty (CTBT) adopted 1998 Pakistans first nuclear test Feb 15, 1994 North Korea permits IAEA inspections in 7 of its sites May 24, 1996 The United States imposes sanctions on North Korea and Iran for missile technology-related transfers April 25, 1999 The United States, South Korea, and Japan establish the Trilateral Coordination and Oversight Group to institutionalize close consultation and policy coordination in dealing with North Korea 4 2002 President G W Bush names North Korea as a member of the Axis of Evil October 16, 2002 US announces that North Korea has admitted to possessing nuclear weapons January 10, 2003 North Korea withdraws from NPT October 9, 2006 North Korea conducts an underground explosive test 2009 North Korea conducts another test Previous Attempts to solve the Issue Sanctions on Iran The Security Council has imposed four rounds of sanction upon Iran in its resolutions 1737, 1747, 1803 and 1929. The UN Security Council began imposing sanctions on Iran since 2006, when it failed to comply with IAEA requirements and continued uranium enrichment activities. The sanctions have included bans on exports of nuclear, missile, and dual-use technologies; limiting travel by dozens of Iranian officials; and freezing the assets of forty individuals and entities, including Bank Sepah and various front companies.2 In addition, USA and EU have individually imposed further sanctions on Iran which have targeted its trade, finances and energy sector. Russia has supported the weaker Security Council sanctions against Iran but opposed the stronger ones imposed individually by the USA. It is against any unilateral sanctions and although a fourth round of sanctions was imposed, it faced resistance from Russia and China, both of which maintain strong economic ties with Iran. They opposed it due to their individual economic and political interests. According to critics, the lack of support from these two nations could have weakened the overall affect of the sanctions. The sanctions imposed are believed to have had limited success as Iran still holds an aggressive stance as to continuing its nuclear program and asserts that is it permitted to do so for civilian use as per the NPT. President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has said: The Iranian nation will not succumb to bullying, invasion and the violation of its rights.5 Talks with DPRK Several attempts have been made to establish a nuclear free Korean-peninsula but all efforts until today have been unsuccessful and DPRK has withdrawn from all treaties it has acceded to. This is probably because DRPK has only been signing treaties out of international pressure, not voluntarily. Agreed Framework The United States and North Korea signed the Agreed Framework on October 21, 1994 by which DPRK agreed to freeze operation and construction of nuclear reactors in exchange for two light water reactors and the relaxation of economic sanctions. The Agreed Framework resolved the ongoing 18 month crisis during which DRPK threatened to withdraw from the NPT. However, there were difficulties regarding the financing of reactors caused the plan to be behind schedule. Infuriated, DPRK violated the agreements which caused USA to persuade KEDO suspend shipments to the country. This marked the end of the agreement. In comparison to other attempts, this one probably had the greatest chance of success as it offered DPRK to end its nuclear program in exchange for realistic concessions made by other countries. Six Party Talks The six party concerning DPRKs nuclear program involved United States, North Korea, China, Japan, Russia and, South Korea as was a result of North Korea withdrawing from the NPT in 2003. Until today, six rounds of the six party talks have been held. Due to the conflicting aims of the members involved, minimal progress was achieved. During the third phase of the fifth round, North Korea agreed to shut down its nuclear facilities in exchange for fuel aid the normalization of relations with Japan and USA. These talks eventually ended when North Korea launched a satellite despite international pressure not to do so. It was believed to be a test of its prototype Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). In February 2005, North Korea declared that it had nuclear weapons for self defense and pulled out of the six party talks. DPRK expelled all nuclear inspectors and resumed its nuclear weapons program. Possible Solutions As evident from the past, Iran has been adamant about its position and the authenticity of its nuclear program. For any further progress to be made Iran and the West need to cooperate. Prior to creating any framework for agreements, Iran must be given recognition for its right to exist as an Islamic Republic, and its minimum security concerns must be acknowledged as legitimate. Thus, military strike either by USA or by Israel against Irans possible nuclear program would be disastrous as it would possibly cause Iran to retaliate which is a concern of global security and lead to regional catastrophe. The underlying problem in the Middle East crisis is the lack of trust and the increasing hostility between Iran and Israel. Solutions to resolve this issue should focus on reduce the fears of existential destruction that the two nations harbor towards each other. Iran must recognize the importance of moderating its bellicose stance whereas Israel checks its threats to attack Iran. In order to moderate any development of the negotiations between Israel and Iran, the Security Council should provide security guarantees to both countries and assess their concerns of security risks. Another way of addressing the issue would be to provide financial incentives to Iran; large enough to buy up the nuclear energy specialized for civilian use, if Iran completely halts its current nuclear program. One way of addressing the issue of North Korea would be to provide it with concessions such as providing it with substitute forms of energy for its civilian nuclear program and cutting back economic sanctions based on any agreement that has been reached upon. However, these are only possible if North Korea agrees to comply with any solutions reached upon. Although diplomacy is a great tool to resolve conflicts, many believe that as North Korea has repeatedly proved itself to be unreliable as far as agreements are concerned, a more aggressive option might be appropriate. However, it is important to note that any aggressive military action could possibly worsen matters. Constructive solutions would include measures to normalize relations between North Korea and all other states. As of today the most viable solution would be to establish a nuclear free zone in North Korea but it is difficult to implement. All problems that arise as a consequence of implementing such a solution must therefore also be addressed.

High Blood Pressure :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The definition of High blood pressure is a measurement of the force applied against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps blood through the body. The pressure is determined by the force and amount of blood pumped and the size and flexibility of the arteries. The blood pressure is continually changing depending on activity, temperature, diet, emotional state, posture, physical state, and drugs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The blood pressure is ussually taken while the person is seated with the arm resting on a table and slightly bent so that the arm is at the same level as the heart.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Blood pressure readings ate ussually given as two numbers: 110 over 70. The first number is called the systolic blood pressure reading and represents the maximum pressure exerted when the heart contracts. The second number is called the diastolic blood pressure reading and it represents the pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The test can be done at any time. It is usually done after resting at least 5 minutes. The only thing you can feel during the test is the pressure of the cuff on the arm. There is no risk to taking the test. Most people cannot sense if their blood pressure is high because ther are usually no symptoms. High blood pressure increases the risk of heart failure, heart attack, stroke, and kidney failure. For people who have high blood pressure, taking the test is a way of monitoring the effectivness of medications and dietary modifications on the blood pressure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Generally, the systolic pressure is approximately 120 and the diastolic pressure is approximately 70 to 80.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abnormal resusts are mild hypertension were diastolic pressure is 90 to 104. Significant hypertension is when systolic pressure is above 200 or

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards:

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards: Motivational Theory Revisited labr_496 1.. 23 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Abstract. A model of job satisfaction integrating economic and work environment variables was developed and used for testing interactions between rewards and work environment hazards. Data came from a representative panel of Danish employees. Results showed that psychosocial work environment factors, like information about decisions concerning the work place, social support, and in? uence, have signi? cant impacts on the level of job satisfaction.Maximizing rewards did not compensate public employees to an extent that ameliorated the negative effects on job satisfaction of experiencing low levels of any of these factors whereas in? uence did not impact job satisfaction of private employees. 1. Introduction Although job satisfaction is not considered an economic variable in itself, several studies in a labour economic context have highlighted that low job satisf action is a determinant of resignations from the work place; see Akerlof et al. (1988), Blank and Diderichsen (1995), Clark et al. 1998), and Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). Other studies have shown an impact from job satisfaction on phenomena that are more dif? cult to observe directly, such as intention to leave the work place (Bockerman and Ilmakunnas, 2005), motivation and absenteeism (Keller, 1983; Tharenou, 1993), and counterproductive behaviour (Gottfredson and Holland, 1990). Work environment has been found to in? uence labour market outcomes in terms of early retirement (see Lund and Villadsen, 2005), employee long-term absence from work due to illness (see Benavides et al. 2001; Hemmingway et al. , 1997; Lund et al. , 2005), short-term sickness absence (see Munch-Hansen et al. , 2009), and productivity (see Cooper et al. , 1996). Within traditional economic theory, work environment factors have tended to be modelled as job attributes, seen as hazards at work for which compensating wage differentials are to be paid. The theory of compensating wage differentials goes as far back as Adam Smith’s book, Wealth of Nations, from 1776, where equalizing wage differentials adjust the net advantages of different jobs.This makes it possible to achieve general labour market equilibrium when work places, preferences, and technologies are heterogeneous. Rosen (1986) reviews the various studies on the area and ? nds evidence of compensating wage differentials especially for physical working conditions, like shift work, heavy, dirty, or dangerous work. Other studies ? nd no evidence of compensating wages differentials (see Ehrenberg and Smith, 1994) or, in cases where workers do receive compensating wages differences, that the compensation does not re? ct their true preferences (see Lanfranchi, 2002). Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal (author for correspondence), The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lerso Parkalle 105, 2100 Copenhag en, Denmark. E-mail: [email  protected] dk. LABOUR 25 (1) 1–23 (2011) DOI: 10. 1111/j. 1467-9914. 2010. 00496. x JEL J6, J28, J30, J31, J45, J81  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Rd. , Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St. , Malden, MA 02148, USA. 2 Lea Sell — Bryan ClealAccording to the theory of compensating wages differentials, the equalization of total compensation is dependent on both perfect mobility of workers and perfect information for workers and ? rms. Both assumptions are questionable. Mobility may be, at least temporarily, limited by factors such as a high unemployment rate or family ties, restricting job choice to a speci? c mix of working hours, pay, or location. Likewise, full information regarding working conditions, especially when drawing in psychosocial work factors, cannot be known in advance, but will be experienced only in the actual work situation.Under these circumstances adverse working conditions can have an impact on the level of job satisfaction even if high wages are paid. The purpose of the present paper is to identify determinants of job satisfaction in a model that contains detailed information on both work environment and economic factors. Moreover, we wish to test if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in which there are no compensatory rewards.The results from the ? rst analysis are of interest because most previous studies on job satisfaction either do not include all economic variables of interest, and are cross-sectional studies not accounting for unobserved heterogeneity, or include only few work environment factors. The second analysis can supplement the theory of compensating wages differentials by introducing more detailed work environment measures and by testing the capability of rewards to compensate workers for hazards in the work environment to an extent that ameliorates the effects on job satisfaction.The work environment factors considered are all evidence-based health risks factors, thereby both long-term effects on work ability and health and short-term effects on employee satisfaction and motivation are considered. The data used in this study are a panel of a representative cohort of Danish employees at two points in time, 1995 and 2000. The data set consists of individual assessments of working conditions and socio-economic data for 3,412 employees (when omitting observations with missing response on any of the items analysed here). The data were collected by the National Institute of Occupational Health in Denmark. . Theoretical background Job satisfaction is not an absolute measure but merely an indicator for a range of job characteristics. Using Locke’s (1976) de? nition, job satisfaction is a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of oneâ€℠¢s job and it is worth recalling here that such subjective data are generally viewed with suspicion by economists. Freeman (1978) states that the principal problem in interpreting responses to such questions is that they depend not only on the objective circumstances in which an individual is situated, but also on one’s psychological state.Moreover, the level of job satisfaction may also be in? uenced by ability thus representing unobservable, stable characteristics of individuals. Earlier studies within organizational psychology have shown that the level of job satisfaction varies very little over time, suggesting that it does re? ect underlying stable personal dispositions (see Schneider and Dachler, 1978). This has been tested on a cohort of German employees by Dormann and Zapf (2001) in a review on the studies on the alleged stability of job satisfaction.The result was that after controlling for stable working conditions, the stability of job satisfaction diminishes to no nsigni? cance, indicating that an underlying dispositional in? uence on job satisfaction is not direct, but mediated by working conditions. This also suggests that the level of job satisfaction can be changed by organizational measures.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 3 A general and well-known model of job satisfaction was developed by Herzberg (see Herzberg et al. 1959). He found that some job factors could only cause dissatisfaction or short-lasting motivation whereas other factors could invoke long-lasting positive feelings towards the job. If job factors are in fact dual with regard to their effect on job satisfaction, the method used for examining job satisfaction should account for this. If only testing for positive or negative associations between the covariates and job satisfaction, information on the factors being only capable of causing either high job satisfaction or low job satisfa ction would most likely be lost.As for the effects of compensatory rewards, this may be essential and consequently separate analyses are undertaken here for the outcome being highly satis? ed with the job and the outcome being dissatis? ed with the job. Many of the earlier studies on job satisfaction have made an analytical distinction between the two genders as there consistently has been reported higher job satisfaction for women; see, for example, Sloane and Williams (2000) and Clark (1997). Where Sloane and Williams ? nd that the differences stem from men and women having different types of work, Clark ? ds that neither different jobs, their different work values, nor sample selection accounts for the gender satisfaction differential. Rather he proposes an explanation based on well-being relative to expectations. A man and a woman with the same jobs and levels of expectations would report identical levels of job satisfaction. But as women’s expectations are lower than men ’s due to having been more attached to work in the home, they will report higher job satisfaction than their male counterparts even given the same working conditions. This hypothesis is supported by the ? ding that the gender satisfaction differential disappears for the young, the higher educated, professionals and those in male-dominated work places. This can be related to the length of time women have had an established position at the labour market, an issue that has been further exploited in a paper by Kaiser (2005). Here Denmark, Finland, and the Netherlands are the only European countries that do not show signi? cant gender–job satisfaction differences. They argue that the gender–job satisfaction paradox fades out in the process of ‘modernizations’ of the labour market.This modernization is facilitated if the welfare state as in Scandinavia and, to a certain extent, the Netherlands supports equal opportunities for women and men by means of, fo r example, kindergartens and homes for the elderly people. A more recent topic within this line of economic literature is based on the theory that the public sector is likely to attract individuals with high intrinsic motivation to care about the recipients of public service or those who thrive on the social recognition they might receive for contributing to an important mission (Benabou and Tirole, 2006).And although the picture is not fully conclusive, studies have in fact shown that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards than employees within the private sector. They are prepared to work for a lower overall pay level than is the case for private-sector employees because they derive satisfaction from participating in the production of a good of high social value; see, for example, Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000). Ren (2010) points to that value congruence or organization and employees can strengthen the intrinsic motivation. He also investigates whether value congruence can impact the design of the organization and ? nds that value congruence is related to employee participation in decision making and autonomy as opposed to control. Apart from the above discussed differences in the incentive structures in the public and the private sector, there is also a difference in the gender distribution within the two sectors as women tend to be over-represented in the public as well as the non-pro? t sector. Narcy et al. 2008) investigates possible explanations for this and ? nds that the ‘feminization’ of the public sector can be explained by the fact that women obtain a higher wage gain from choosing this sector than men do, investigating, among other factors, the social objectives pursued by the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 4 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal public sector. Also ? exible working hours have seemed to attract women. The result in regard to wages was found for Greek data in Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007). In Denmark 63. per cent of the employees in the public sector are women whereas this ? gure for the private sector is only 35. 1 per cent (OECD, 1997). According to the previous discussion, a meaningful analytical distinction when studying job satisfaction is between the private and the public sector. Newer studies that have applied this distinction with good results are, for example, Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007) and Ghinetti (2007). They use Greek and Italian data, respectively, and the measures are on so-called ‘domain satisfactions’ representing different facets of the job, instead of a universal measure.Ghinetti examines differences in satisfaction between the private and the public sector in regard to six non-pecuniary job attributes. He ? nds that public and private employees are equally satis? ed on three of the items, that the publicly employed are more satis? ed on two items, and one item with mixed results. Using a division on sector, gender differences can be tested by means of interactions effects. In the present paper, we use a division on sector in combination with tests of gender interaction effects. An often discussed topic in relation to job satisfaction is wage.The general assumption is that higher wage increases job satisfaction, not necessarily because it actually makes you happier in the job, but because a higher wage increases overall utility by increasing total expenditure opportunities. Many studies apply a general job satisfaction measure, which makes it dif? cult to distinguish the two effects. Furthermore, not only absolute, but also relative wage is considered to be positively correlated to the level of job satisfaction. This is when using the wages of other workers having the same characteristics and type of job for comparison; see, for example, Clark (1996).In the present paper, wage is used as one type of reward along wi th recognition and future opportunities at the job. In order not to confuse the relationships between the three types of rewards, we use the absolute wage in the present analyses as opposed to relative wages. The job satisfaction measure applied is a general measure of job satisfaction. Other determinants of job satisfaction often applied in analyses performed within labour economic theory and thus also used in our analyses include education, job tenure, managerial position, the unemployment rate, and marital status and number of children.Tenure and having a leading position have nearly always been found to be positively related to job satisfaction (Clark, 1997). The relationships between job satisfaction, level of education, the unemployment rate, and wages are intertwined and convoluted. Education raises wages and thus job satisfaction. But education also raises expectations with respect to job content and thus the likelihood of experiencing job dissatisfaction. In addition, there is more opportunity for mobility between jobs in the low-wage job market due to fewer matching criteria for taking a job, increasing the likelihood of job satisfaction.Finally, a lower unemployment rate can raise job satisfaction through improved mobility (see Akerlof et al. , 1988). Where possible we use the unemployment rate within speci? c professions (60 per cent in the current sample), otherwise the average unemployment rate is used. Hours of work have been considered as a measure of the disutility of work whereas utility is increasing with increased leisure time. In Denmark, as well as in many other countries, working hours have to a great extent become a non-divisible good as a result of regulation.Moreover, long working hours can be evident both for workers having a very challenging job and for workers just having too much work, as shown by Kristensen et al. (2004). As a result we decided not to use the absolute number of working hours in our analyses and included ? exibili ty of working hours instead. Although work environment has been used extensively in earlier job satisfaction studies, the present article restricts its focus to factors where there is evidence of negative health outcomes.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing LtdJob Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 5 A widely used theory within psychosocial work environment research is the demand– control model, elaborated by Karasek (see Karasek and Theorell, 1990). Job demands encompass quantitative job demands, time pressure, and con? icting job demands whereas decision latitude in contrast is a measure of control and composed of level of job discretion and the degree of in? uence. Workers exposed to high demands and low control have an increased risk for a number of diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases.High job demands in association with low control have also been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal disorders, psychiatric illne ss, gastrointestinal illness, cancer, suicide, sleeping problems, and diabetes (see Kristensen, 1996). Later studies (e. g. Johnson and Hall, 1988) have shown that a high level of social support can counteract the negative effects of high job strain. A more recent theory is the effort–reward imbalance model by Siegrist (1996). High effort in combination with low rewards has been shown to have an impact on stress, sudden cardiac death, and hypertension.In this model job demands are a composite measure of time pressure and other quantitative demands, similar to the demands of the demand–control model. Reward can be in the form of wages, recognition, and opportunities for personal development or career opportunities. In our analyses we integrate all three reward measures in testing if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in wh ich there are no compensatory rewards.Job security and predictability are related to the conception of status control. Not having a high level of information on decisions that concern the work place is an invisible stressor that has been found to predict heart disease (see Iversen et al. , 1989). In the extensive Whitehall II study set-up in Britain in order to investigate the causes of the social gradient in morbidity and mortality, the impact of privatization on a former civil-servant department when job outcomes were not established was evaluated (see Stansfeld et al. , 1997).In the gap between the announcement of the privatization and the termination phase where the employees had gained more certainty about their future job status, there was an increase in the psychiatric morbidity compared with the morbidity in the period before the announcement of the privatization. Other psychosocial health factors included in the analyses in this paper are being exposed to aggression at the work place and role con? icts. Exposure to con? icts, teasing, or threats of violence can provoke stress, anxiety, and, in the long run, fatigue in the victims (see Hoegh, 2005).Role con? ict is a measure of con? icting demands and unclear responsibilities and is considered a source of chronic stress, also shown to have an impact on job satisfaction (Fisher and Gitelson, 1983). Physical job demands are included using a measure of the frequency of odd working positions, including having the back heavily bent forward with no support for hands or arms, twisted or bent body, hands lifted to shoulder height or higher, the neck heavily bent forward or squatting or kneeling (see Lund and Tsonka, 2003). Noise is measured on a dichotomous scale re? cting if workers are exposed to noise so high that one must raise his or her voice more than 75 per cent of the time in order to communicate with others. For a review of the effects of noise on mental health, see Stansfeld et al. (2000). 3. Method 3. 1 Elaboration of variables In this paper the wording of the question on job satisfaction is: ‘Are you satis? ed with your job? ’. The answers fall in four verbally labelled and ordered categories. Possible answers are:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 6 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Yes, indeed’, ‘To some extent’, ‘Not so much’, and ‘No or very seldom’. For analytical purposes, answers in the category ‘Yes, indeed’ de? ne the outcome high job satisfaction whereas answers in categories ‘Not so much’ and ‘No or very seldom’ de? ne being dissatis? ed with the job. In general the variables are entered in the model in their original form. However the variable representing high demands in combination with low control, as well as the scale for social support, is composed of several measures. Social support consists of a practical and a psychological dimension, both of which are assessed in the questionnaires.The scales differ slightly from 1995 to 2000 and we have therefore dichotomized in a way that makes them equivalent. Hence we only look at situations where the employee either always receives help, support, and encouragement or not. There are separate questions for social support from colleagues and from leaders or superiors. Not always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors is assigned the lowest level, always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors are the two intermediate levels, and always receiving support from both groups is the highest level.In order to measure demands and level of control, a variable that re? ects the demands in different occupations has been constructed. Demands are de? ned as being high if work demands attention and full concentration almost all of the time, if the pace of work is perceived to be very fast, or when con? icting or unclear job demands are experienced. L ow control is de? ned as a combination of limited in? uence on planning one’s own work and low job variation. 3. 2 Data and the population Data on work environment and health in the working population were obtained from the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study (DWECS) (see Burr et al. 2003). The panel started out with a simple random sample drawn from the central population register in 1990, consisting of people aged 18–59 years per 1 October 1990. People in this panel were interviewed in 1995, 2000, and 2005 and the panel is continuously adjusted for ageing and immigration. The 1990 sample consisted of 9,653 individuals of which 8,664 participated (90 per cent). Of these, 6,067 (70 per cent) were wages earners. The following 1995 sample consisted of 10,702 persons, of which 8,572 participated (80 per cent).Of the participants in 1995, 5,649 (65. 9 per cent) were wage earners, 6. 7 per cent were enterprise owners, and 27. 4 per cent were not in the job market. Of the 5 ,649 wage earners in 1995, 4,647 also participated in the survey in 2000 (82. 3 per cent). The population used for the analyses in this paper are the respondents who were wage earners in 1995 and who also participated in DWECS as wage earners in 2000, corresponding to 3,773 individuals. The sample only contains information about present job in 1995 and 2000, respectively, and on tenure in these jobs.Information on possible intervening unemployment spells is only obtainable when linking the data set to a register of social payment transfers that have not been within the scope of this paper. Job satisfaction has shown to be related to job change as in, for example, Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). As for job change in our population, a total of 1,128 individuals have changed work place in the period. When dividing this subsample on job satisfaction levels as reported in 1995, 49. 7 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom satis? ed with the job change work place d uring the 5-year period whereas only 32. per cent of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job have changed job by 2000. Moreover, as wage earners who had a low degree of job satisfaction in 1995 have had a higher  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 7 incentive to leave the work force completely or start their own enterprise by 2000, the ? nal sample may be biased. To estimate the size of this potential bias, all participants in 2000 (including unemployed and enterprise owners) are divided among the four categories of job satisfaction levels reported in 1995.The results are that 21 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom, satis? ed are not in the work force in 2000. Of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job, only 14 per cent had left the work force. However, the total amount of dissatis? ed workers who have left the sample amounts to 58 perso ns and attrition should therefore not pose a serious threat to the reliability of results. After deducting observations with missing values on any of the analysed items, the cohort consisted of 3,412 individuals. See Table 1 for sample characteristics. 3. 3 Statistical analysesThe data resulting from measuring qualitative phenomena by the use of questionnaires are most often categorical, ordinally scaled data. This means that they are ordered, but with intervals that might be uneven. One example is measures of job satisfaction using a verbal rating scale, consisting of a discrete number of verbally described ordered categories. This type of data restricts the types of arithmetic operations that can be applied, which in turn limit the range of statistical methods suitable for the analysis. As noted earlier, another problem when analysing job satisfaction is that of unobserved heterogeneity.It causes problems because the regression model is based on the assumption that there is no cor relation between the explanatory variables and the error term. But as the error term captures the variation from potentially omitted variables such as ? xed personal traits that may in? uence the probability of a speci? c outcome on the job satisfaction variable, this type of model error is likely to occur in analyses of job satisfaction. A method to eliminate heterogeneity is the application of conditional likelihood in logistic regression, as shown by Chamberlain (1980) in the case of having a binary response variable.The principle applied here is that when using logistic regression with conditional likelihood and having more than one observation per object, the variables that do not change values are not used in the estimation. Unfortunately this also means that a variable like gender will be omitted from the estimation. The latter problem can be solved by either splitting up the analysis in two parts according to gender or by integrating gender effects as interaction effects, wh ich is the method adopted in this paper.As the scale on which job satisfaction is measured in the present analysis consists of four ordered categories with verbal ratings, ordinal comparability can be assumed and the response variable can be recoded to a binary variable without violating any assumptions. Conditional likelihood estimation is performed using the panel 1995–2000. Supplementary ordinary regressions are completed using the cross-sectional data from 2000. Predicted probabilities are generated from the cross-sectional data. Initially, correlation analysis using Kendall Tau was performed on all explanatory variables. The correlation coef? cient was below 0. 0 except between age and tenure, and between education in years and wage. Tenure is used as a substitute for age, as the sign of the correlation between age and job satisfaction also may depend on age (Clark et al. , 1998). Educational levels were dichotomized and tested in the model as with the gender interaction terms. The full model with variables given in Table 1 and Appendix A becomes:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Age in years Mean Years of school Mean Std. deviation Professions Vocational training Marital status Cohabiting 39. 7 Public 13. 3 2. 57 34. 2 79. 3 35. 7 Private 995 12. 1 2. 19 53. 5  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 74. 7 80. 8 54. 4 12. 5 2. 36 40. 9 Private 2000 81. 9 33. 7 13. 7 2. 53 44. 7 Public Net month pay Mean, DKK. Std. deviation Tenure Mean Std. deviation Gender Male Female 64. 9 35. 1 7. 0 7. 52 10,891 4,909 Private Table 1. Summary of key demographic and economic variables in balanced panel (N = 3,412) 1995 36. 6 63. 4 8. 8 8. 10 9,932 4,102 Public 65. 0 35. 0 9. 0 8. 79 13,600 4,667 Private 2000 34. 5 65. 0 11. 4 9. 64 12,123 3,541 Public 8 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 9 JSij = ? i + ? marriedij + ? 2 Childrenij + ? 3High school ij + ? 4Short further educationij u + ? 5 Tenureij + ? 6 Leaderij + ? 7 unemployment rateij + ? 8 Noiseij + ? 9 Physical strainij + ? 10 Influenceij + ? 11High demand-low controlij + ? 12 Job securityij + ? 13 Informationij + ? 14 Role conflict ij + ? 15Social sup port ij + ? 16 Conflict at workij + ? 17 Flexible hoursij + ? 18 Logpay ij + ? 19 Job futurei + ? 20 Recognition leaderi + ? ij . The i subscript refers to different persons and j refers to different measurements for person i, Job satisfaction (JS) is the dependent variable, a the constant, b is the vector of the coef? ients of the explanatory variables, and eij is a random error term. Questionnaire answers on job future opportunities and recognition from leaders are only available for the 2000 cross-section. The estimation method is maximum likelihood and the statistical computer programs used were SAS 8. 2 and STATA 9. 0, the logit procedure and the clogit procedure. Results are presented as factor changes in odds, expre ssing the increase in the odds of being in the group having a high degree of job satisfaction, for a one point, or level, increase in the explanatory variable. 4. ResultsIn this section we present the empirical results based on four sets of analyses. (1) Preliminary regression analyses on gender differences. (2) Main results: Estimating the probability of the outcomes being highly satis? ed with the job and being dissatis? ed with the job using conditional likelihood estimation. (3) An ordinary logistic regression analysis using only data from 2000 with addition of recognition from leaders and future job opportunities to the model. This model is used for predicting the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when rewards are optimized and work environment factors are at unfavourable levels. 4) A fourth and last analysis has the purpose of validation of the question on job satisfaction and consists of a regression where job satisfaction as response variable is substitu ted by a question on the degree of motivation and engagement in one’s work. 4. 1 Preliminary analyses on gender differences Initially, tests for gender interaction effects are performed. For private-sector employees, social support shows both a signi? cant gender effect and a general effect on job satisfaction. For public-sector employees job security indicates a signi? ant gender effect and a general effect. In both cases being a woman increases the impact on the level of job satisfaction. The gender interaction effects are veri? ed when running separate regressions on genders still using the division on sectors. The results can be seen in Appendix B. Due to the loss of observations when using ? xed effects regressions these regressions are run on only the 2000 cross-section using ordinary logistic regression on the outcome being highly satis? ed. A few results turn out to be gender speci? : only for publicly employed men, having no education above high school level lowers t he probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position increases the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly. For publicly employed women only, the unemployment rate is signi? cantly and inversely related to the level of job satisfaction. Job security is signi? cant as suggested by the found interaction effects. For privately employed men and women, gender-speci? c effects are in? uence that increases the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal probability of high job satisfaction for men, job security that increases the likelihood of job satisfaction for women, and being exposed to aggression at the work place, which is only signi? cant for women. Moreover, the coef? cient of social support is larger for women than for men corresponding to the results of the gender analysis. In regard to wages, the effect is large and positive for both privately employed men and privately employed women but nonsigni? cant for both genders within the public sector.As discussed in the statistical analysis section multicollinarity existed between education in years and wage. Therefore educational levels are entered as separate variables to the model. Ultimately, only having no further education beyond high school and having a short further education were statistically signi? cant (p < 0. 05) and these levels are therefore kept in the model. 4. 2 Results using conditional likelihood on the combined panel of data from 1995 and 2000 The gender interaction effects found and the two variables representing educational level are now entered in the ? al model. The results are shown in Table 2. The left section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction and the right section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a low level of job satisfaction, the latter in order to test for a duality in t he impacts on job satisfaction as discussed in Section 2. Looking ? rst at the results for the economic and demographic measures, the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category are reduced with one-? th for every additional child for private employees, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 077). This result is matched in the public sector, in the way that the odds of having a low level of job satisfaction triple for an additional child. For privatesector employees, having no more than a high school education, opposed to having an educational level above high school, nearly triples the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category and also reduces the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? ant (p = 0. 063). Having a medium length or short further education nearly halves the odds of being highly satis? ed with one’s job. Educational level does not show any effects of sig ni? cance for public-sector employees. High tenure raises the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category for public-sector employees, a result not matched elsewhere. Within both sectors, the level of job satisfaction seems to be related to the size of the unemployment rate, and the scope of this relation is similar for private and public employees.The sizes of the odds indicate an 8. 3 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for private-sector employees and a 9 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for public-sector employees. In regard to occupational health factors, the public and the private sector have four factors in common: role con? cts nearly halves the odds of being in the high satisfaction category in both sectors, odd work positions decrease the odds of being in the high satisfaction category for private employees by one-third, and for public employees by nearly one-half. Increasing the level of information that concerns the work place raises the odds of being highly satis? ed by 71 per cent for privately employed and by 91 per cent for publicly employed workers. For each increase in the level of social support, the odds of being highly satis? ed increase by 58 per cent and 31 per cent, respectively. For public employees, increasing the level of in? ence increases the odds of being highly satis? ed with the job by 71 per cent, and having foreseeable job security above 12 months nearly doubles the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category. For private-sector  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1. 061 0. 811(*) 2. 881* 0. 558* 1. 009 1. 349 0. 917* 0. 525* 0. 681* 1. 045 0. 965 1. 532 1. 709* 0. 537* 1. 576* 0. 973 1. 246* 1. 698(*) 0. 755* — 0. 674–1. 672 0. 643–1. 023 1. 342–6. 186 0. 359–0. 868 0. 97 8–1. 040 0. 707–2. 573 0. 876–0. 960 0. 303–0. 907 0. 514–0. 903 0. 849–1. 292 0. 446–2. 091 0. 904–2. 596 1. 380–2. 116 0. 398–0. 23 1. 257–1. 978 0. 555–1. 705 1. 103–1. 409 0. 990–2. 913 0. 575–0. 992 — CI 1. 310 1. 047 0. 497 0. 796 0. 974 0. 460 0. 910* 0. 739 0. 579* 1. 710* 0. 595 2. 042(*) 1. 906* 0. 525* 1. 309* 0. 936 1. 035 1. 386 — 0. 150* OR ? xed 0. 639–2. 682 0. 755–1. 452 0. 153–1. 618 0. 431–1. 472 0. 932–1. 019 0. 150–1. 417 0. 858–0. 965 0. 346–1. 576 0. 358–0. 935 1. 142–2. 559 0. 058–6. 084 0. 891–4. 680 1. 355–2. 681 0. 337–0. 817 1. 092–1. 569 0. 552–1. 589 0. 850–1. 260 0. 463–4. 154 — 0. 027–0. 825 CI Public (Reg. 2) 1. 379 0. 803 0. 062(*) 0. 414 1. 046 3. 378 1. 006 3. 843* 1. 238 1. 943* 4. 482* 3. 01 2* 2. 112* 2. 247(*) 1. 496* . 825 0. 913 1. 176 — — OR ? xed 0. 360–5. 274 0. 394–1. 639 0. 003–1. 157 0. 085–2. 022 0. 951–1. 150 0. 320–35. 729 0. 906–1. 116 1. 238–11. 926 0. 653–2. 347 1. 176–3. 212 1. 425–14. 091 1. 016–8. 933 1. 222–3. 650 0. 949–5. 320 1. 059–2. 114 0. 679–4. 902 0. 641–1. 300 0. 275–5. 038 — — CI Private (Reg. 3) b 0. 744 3. 396* 11. 731 2. 327 1. 195* 0. 061 1. 017 0. 358 1. 250 3. 186(*) 0. 727 0. 939 2. 052(*) 1. 152 1. 586(*) 4. 557(*) 0. 805 1. 766 — — OR ? xed 0. 140–3. 948 1. 049–10. 993 0. 469–293. 833 0. 383–14. 120 1. 025–1. 395 0. 0 0. 861–1. 202 0. 046–2. 809 0. 573–2. 724 0. 975–10. 409 0. 071–7. 497 0. 127–6. 940 0. 96–4. 699 0. 348–3. 819 0. 936–2. 689 0. 962–21. 598 0. 372à ¢â‚¬â€œ1. 740 0. 160–19. 521 — — CI Public (Reg. 4) Low job satisfactionc Dichotomous variables. Gender interaction effects: Male = 1. c Scales are reversed for in? uence, job security, information, social support, and ? exible hours when estimating job dissatisfaction. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels:(*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 0000 < p < 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,200, Reg. 2 = 650, Reg. 3 = 282, Reg. 4 = 128. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 317. 1, Reg. 2 = 172. 6, Reg. 3 = 50. 8, Reg. 4 = 27. 3. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 24, Reg. 2 = 0. 3, Reg. 3 = 0. 48, and Reg. 4 = 0. 38. a Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Male social su pportb Male job securityb OR ? xed Private (Reg. 1) High job satisfaction Table 2. Results from conditional logistic regression, when estimating the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job and being dissatis? ed with one’s job.Divided on private-sector and public-sector employees Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 11  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 12 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal employees, three additional factors have signi? cant impacts on the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job: noise halves the odds of having the highest level of job satisfaction; more ? exible working hours increase the odds of being highly satis? ed by 25 per cent; and ? nally the odds of log pay suggest that when log pay is increased by one unit the odds of being in the high satisfaction category increase by nearly 70 per cent.The effect is borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 054). Comparing the results from the conditional likelihood estimation with the results from the ordinary logistic regression analyses (as shown in Appendix B), a few discrepancies emerge: for publicly employed men having no more than a high school education lowers the probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position raises the probability of a high level of job satisfaction using ordinary regression analysis only. In? uence raises the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly for privately employed men but not when using ? ed effects analyses. For public employees, being exposed to aggression at the work place lowers the probability of high job satisfaction when using ordinary logistic regression analysis and the corresponding result from the ? xed effects regression is an increase in the probability of dissatisfaction when being exposed to con? icts. For private employees odd work positions only show an effect in the ? xed effects analysis. Looking at the results of predicti ng being dissatis? ed with one’s job several factors impact on the probability of both having a high degree of job satisfaction and being dissatis? d with the job. This is the case in the private sector for noise, information, role con? icts, and social support, and in the public sector for in? uence, information, and social support. On the other hand, being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, or having a job with low control in combination with high demands only has an impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed with the job. 4. 3 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job Following the results from the regressions presented in the previous sections, pay is only a signi? ant predictor of having a high level of job satisfaction in the private sector, and did not seem to have any impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed. Within both labour economic studies and work psychology, future opportunities and recognition are also considered as rewards of work. As additional information is available on future opportunities and recognition in data from 2000, the following analysis incorporates all three types of rewards. In addition, people were asked in 1995 what they considered to be the most important aspect of their work.Of the three possible answers, 11. 2 per cent answered that the pay was good (6. 0 per cent in the public sector and 14. 8 per cent in the private sector), 58. 0 per cent answered that the work interested them (65. 6 per cent in the public sector and 52. 7 per cent in the private sector), and 30. 8 per cent answered that they got along well with colleagues (28. 4 per cent in the public sector and 32. 4 per cent in the private sector). The differences among public and private employees with regard to pay support the evidence from our analyses.However the results also suggest that alternative rewards may be considered although the capability of these rewards to compensa te for hazards in the work environment is more uncertain. The second question we have sought to investigate is whether employees exposed to hazards at work for which they receive above average rewards, when comparing with employees in non-hazardous work with average rewards, report the same level of job satisfaction. This was achieved by means of calculations of predicted probabilities. The factors tested were signi? ant predictors of both having a high level of job satisfaction and being dissatis? ed with the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 13 job. Initially, a regression on the 2000 cohort integrating recognition from leaders and future possibilities in the model was performed. The results from this regression are shown in Appendix C. The hazards analysed for private-sector employees are high noise, low levels of information and social support, and role con? icts. For the public sector, low l evels of information, in? ence, and social support are chosen. The results from varying the levels of these variables from their best, to their worst case, and at the same time maximizing the three types of rewards are shown in Table 3. The values in column 2 express the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six chosen work environment factors are in their most positive position and all other variables are held constant at the mean. Column 3 shows the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six hazards is at the most negative level.Columns 4, 5 and 6 give the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when the individual factors are at the worst case, single rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. Having the lowest level of information gives the lowest probability of having a high degree of job satisfaction observed for private-sector employees (0. 62). For public-sector employees the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job when information is at the lowest level is 0. 56. This is the case when all other variables are held at an average level.Moreover, the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job never exceeds 0. 75 as long as information is low, which is below both 0. 81 and 0. 79, the average probabilities of being highly satis? ed with the job within the public and the private sector. Low in? uence predicts the lowest probability of a high level of job satisfaction for publicsector employees, which is 0. 56. In this case it is not possible to reach the same level of job satisfaction when having the lowest possible level of in? uence, as compared with those experiencing a high level of in? uence even if receiving maximum rewards.The same is evident for social support for employees in both sectors. In contrast, the impacts of high noise or experiencing role con? icts on the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction are, however, neutralized by either the highest level of leader recognition or future opportunities, or a high wage, being among the best-paid 2 per cent in the sample. 4. 4 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly motivated in the job The analysis made in Section 4. 3 is repeated now predicting the probability of having the highest level of motivation when the levels of in? ence, social support, and information are at their worst, individual rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. The results of this regression are shown in Appendix D. Table 4 is analogous with Table 3. The results in Table 4 are consistent with the results in Table 3, except that receiving the highest level of leader recognition now seems to compensate privately employed for a low level of social support. 5. Discussion The way work environmental and socio-economic factors related to job satisfaction was not only in terms of either increasing job satisfaction or not, i. e. eing motivational factors or not. Thus in line with Herzberg et al. ’s (1959) theory some job factors also function as maintenance factors that are only being capable of making employees dissatis? ed with the job. In addition to this, some factors only had the impact of lowering the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job. These could be characterized as inconvenience factors with an unsettling effect on the motivation factors.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0. 713 0. 618 0. 727 0. 736 0. 563 0. 754 0. 598 . 798 0. 825 0. 881 0. 812 P(High JS) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 838 0. 879 0. 829 0. 520 0. 721 0. 556 0. 804 0. 727 0. 814 0. 821 P(High JS) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 701 0. 848 0. 730 0. 817 0. 743 0. 827 0. 834 P(High JS) when Leader Reco gnition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 717 0. 858 0. 746 0. 815 0. 741 0. 825 0. 832 P(High JS) when Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Probability of high Job Satisfaction for private employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 901. Probability of high Job Satisfaction for public employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 8052. Leader recognition is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? ’ and future opportunities are maximized when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Are the future prospects of your job good? ’. Private sector Noise Information Social support Role con? ict Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High JS) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at heir means Table 3. Probability of a high level of Jo b Satisfaction (JS) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X) 14 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 0. 268 0. 320 0. 338 0. 408 0. 161 0. 396 0. 467 P(High M) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 474 0. 532 0. 507 0. 380 0. 453 0. 187 0. 299 0. 353 P(High M) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 443 0. 518 0. 230 0. 414 0. 476 P(High M) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 448 0. 523 0. 233 0. 356 0. 415 P(High M) hen Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Notes: Motivation is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘Yes, indeed’ when asked: ‘Do you feel motivated and engaged in your work? ’; 39. 2% of the private employees and 46. 3% of the public employees answer ‘Yes, indeed’. Private sector Information Social support Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High M) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at their means Table 4. Probability of a high level of motivation (M) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X)Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 15  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 16 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal While adding to the credibility of results, many respondents unfortunately are lost when using conditional likelihood estimation as those with none changing characteristics are dropped from the analysis. When comparing the results of the ordinary regression analyses with the results using conditional likelihood estimation it did not seem that controlling for ? xed effects alters results in regard to the subjective measures used.A possible explanation is that most answers are put as frequencies of exposure during working hours leaving less room for misconceptions of the questions. About two-thirds of the results on work environment variables were comm on for public- and private-sector employees, with effects of just about the same size. Common factors were odd work positions and role con? ict, both factors lowering the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction, and information on decisions that concerns the work place and social support, of which higher levels predicted being highly satis? d with the job and lower levels predicted job dissatisfaction. Factors being speci? c for the private sector were noise and a combination of low control and high demands, whereas exposure to aggression at the work place and level of in? uence only seemed to have an effect on public employees. Being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, and having a job with low control in combination with high demands are examples of maintenance factors as the extent of their impact is con? ned to negative outcomes.In accordance with our results, public employees have been shown to have an increased risk of experiencing con? icts, te asing, or threats of violence at work (see Hoegh, 2005) whereas jobs with low control and high demands are typically found on industrial work sites within the private sector. In testing the ameliorative capability of rewards to compensate for the negative effects on job satisfaction deriving from exposure to (primarily psychosocial) hazards in the work environment, our results indicated only a limited effect for this type of compensating differential.In particular, rewards could not neutralize the effects on job satisfaction when employees have low levels of information on decisions that concerns the work place, social support, or, as a result for public employees only, in? uence. Most previous studies searching for evidence of compensating wage differentials for work environment hazards have been concerned with observable occupational health hazards (see Rosen, 1986), an exception being for very stressful work (French and Dunlap, 1998). The results were duplicated and even more pro nounced when the analysis was repeated substituting job satisfaction with motivation.Where the same fraction of public employees and private employees reported being highly satis? ed with the job, there was a discrepancy among the two sectors when comparing the fraction of employees reporting to be highly motivated. Thirty-nine per cent of the private employees and 46 per cent of the public employees reported to be the highly motivated. These results also correspond to the result that more public than private employees report that the most important aspect of their work was that the work interested them (66 per cent versus 53 per cent).The differences are small but the results support the theory that public employees should have higher intrinsic motivation (Benabou and Tirole, 2006). As wages did not show any signi? cant impact on the level of job satisfaction for public employees and neither had any signi? cant compensating value in regard to certain hazards at the job, the results also point to that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards as also seen in Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000).Very low probabilities of having a high level of job satisfaction (0. 56) and being highly motivated at the job (0. 16) were evident for public employees with the lowest level of in? uence. This clearly suggests that lack of in? uence can demotivate public employees and points to that  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 17 intrinsic motivation can be undermined if people feel controlled, and have little autonomy and freedom in performing work tasks (Deci and Ryan, 1985).Moreover, in the long run, lack of autonomy can pose a threat to value congruence between the employees and the organization, as suggested by Ren (2010). In regard to the results concerning gender differences, job security showed a general positive ef fect on job satisfaction as well as a gender-speci? c effect for employees in the public sector, suggesting women pursue job security more than men. For private employees, any effect of job insecurity would be dissatisfaction with the job and the size of the effect was just about the same for the two genders.In a study by D’Addio et al. (2003), job security was found to have the same effect for men and women after adjusting for ? xed effects. Without adjusting for ? xed effects, men seemingly valued job security the most. In the study by Clark et al. (1998), they ? nd that the extent to which women or men pursue job security varies among countries and that the differences are relatively small. These other studies have split the analyses on gender, which complicates comparison, and the differing time span of years over which the observations are made most ikely has an effect too. Clark et al. (1998) also ? nd that women report having good relations at work more often than men. Whereas Sloane and Williams (2000) ? nd that good interpersonal relations are most important for women. This is consistent with our ? nding that among private employees, women value social support more than men. The impact on job satisfaction from wages may also re? ect an effect of satisfaction with the job that derives from increased total expenditure opportunities as the question on job satisfaction in our study is one that re? cts overall job satisfaction. The results may also be dependent on the given wage structure as both wages and wages dispersion are lower within the public sector than within the private sector in Denmark at the time (Wadensjo, 1996). Finally, the impact on job satisfaction from the unemployment rate is large. D’Addio et al. (2003) found a similar negative correlation between job satisfaction and the rate of unemployment. In both the study by D’Addio et al. (2003) and our study, this relation is only signi? cant after controlling for ? xed ef fects.That is, apart from the result when making a separate analysis on gender and sector. It is noteworthy that the unemployment rate has these clear derived effects on the subjective feelings towards the job. According to the studies by Akerlof et al. (1988), a low unemployment rate makes it possible for unsatis? ed employees to change to jobs with more desired characteristics. Appendix A: List of work environment variables 1. Noise: Two levels according to answer to the below: 3/4 or more of the work day being exposed to noise that high that one must raise the voice to be able to speak with others. . Odd work positions: A score with a one point increase when respondents have marked a positive answer to the following questions: 3/4 or more of the working hours the work entails work with: 1. The back heavily bended forward with no support for hands or arms. 2. The body twisted or bended in the same way several times an hour. 3. The hands lifted to shoulder height or higher. 4. The neck heavily bended forward. 5. Squatting or kneeling.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 18 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 3. In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? 4.Low control–high strain: In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? Job variation: Four levels; Is your job varied? Time pressure: Recoded into two levels; 1995: Does your work entail that you have to work under time pressure in order to get certain pieces of work done? 2000: Is it necessary to work very fast? Mental demands: Does your work demand all your attention and concentration? 5. Job security: Two levels according to: (1995): Certain or pretty sure of keeping the job the next 12 months. (2000): The present job is not a ? xed-term appointment with less than 12 months left. . Information: Four levels; Are you informed about decisions that concern your work place? 7. Unclearness of role and con? icting demands: Two levels according to the consent or not of either of two statements: It is clear what my responsibility. I experience con? icting demands in my work. 8. Social support: (four levels — No support, always support from colleagues but not always from superiors, always support from superiors but not always from colleagues, always support from colleagues and superiors) 1995: Do you receive help and encouragement from your superior/colleagues? 000: How often do you receive help and support from superior or colleagues? 9. Con? icts, teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats, or violence (two levels): 1995: Are you exposed to any form of unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or violence at your work place? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘no’) 2000: Have you been exposed to unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or physical violence at your work place within the last 12 months? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘noâ₠¬â„¢) 10.Flexibility of work schedule: Four levels according to the time space within a respondent can vary the daily working schedule without giving further notice. Can you change the placing of your working hours from day to day without making prearrangements, e. g. meet at work late or leave work early? 11. Recognition: Four levels: Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? 12. Future opportunities: Four levels: Are the future prospects of your work good?  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 19Appendix B: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data. Divided on gender Men Private (Reg. 1) Women Public (Reg. 2) Private (Reg. 3) Public (Reg. 4) Coef. Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. J ob security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error 0. 258 -0. 067 0. 237 0. 437* 0. 010 0. 181 -0. 011 -0. 587* -0. 176 0. 244* -0. 658 0. 087 0. 475* -0. 626* 0. 371* -0. 294 0. 175* 0. 639* 0. 1896 0. 0728 0. 1999 0. 1916 0. 0086 0. 2451 0. 0295 0. 2142 0. 1062 0. 0906 0. 4282 0. 3488 0. 0926 0. 1441 0. 0678 0. 2811 0. 0528 0. 2705 0. 1700 -0. 078 -0. 638* 0. 060 -0. 004 0. 743* 0. 010 0. 104 -0. 493* 0. 395* -0. 919 -0. 292 0. 759* -0. 578* 0. 314* -0. 732* 0. 143 0. 066 0. 2248 0. 0860 0. 2592 0. 1890 0. 0093 0. 3642 0. 0223 0. 2853 0. 1827 0. 1190 0. 6509 0. 2948 0. 1206 0. 1632 0. 0742 0. 1916 0. 0598 0. 2794 0. 307 -0. 026 0. 286 -0. 481* 0. 006 0. 348 0. 021 -0. 529(*) -0. 26 0. 121 -0. 991 0. 469* 0. 607* -0. 435* 0. 459 -0. 348* 0. 171* 0. 611* 0. 2327 0. 1004 0. 2709 0. 2177 0. 0109 0. 5299 0. 0369 0. 2808 0. 14 76 0. 1252 0. 5711 0. 3909 0. 1390 0. 2099 0. 0856 0. 2922 0. 0685 0. 2802 0. 167 -0. 015 -0. 117 -0. 1656 0. 010 -0. 267 -0. 029* -0. 044 -0. 380* 0. 247* -0. 003 0. 369* 0. 623* -0. 542* 0. 362* -0. 335* 0. 104* -0. 092 0. 1477 0. 0612 0. 1804 0. 1349 0. 0070 0. 2914 0. 0139 0. 1963 0. 1126 0. 0880 0. 5338 0. 1888 0. 0896 0. 1212 0. 0508 0. 1397 0. 0471 0. 2195 a Dichotomous variables. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels: (*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 000 < p < 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,356, Reg. 2 = 959, Reg. 3 = 728, Reg. 4 = 1,754. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 639. 3, Reg. 2 = 483. 2, Reg. 3 = 363. 1, Reg. 4 = 907. 1. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 17, Reg. 2 = 0. 18, Reg. 3 = 0. 17, and Reg. 4 = 0. 13. Appendix C: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data (Reg. 1) (Reg. 2) Private (N = 2,057) Public (N = 1,296) OR Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemploymen t rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high strain . Job security 1 yeara 6. Information P>|z| CI lower CI higher OR P>|z| CI lower CI higher 1. 358 0. 934 1. 361 0. 653 1. 016 1. 252 1. 006 0. 628 0. 845 1. 121 0. 464 1. 186 1. 430 0. 042 0. 263 0. 064 0. 004 0. 024 0. 323 0. 796 0. 008 0. 058 0. 139 0. 033 0. 535 0. 000 1. 011 0. 829 0. 982 0. 488 1. 002 0. 802